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“Journal of the ;

Bombay Natural History Society

2a
ies en fy

Pos Vol. 62, No. 1
|

Editors
H. SANTAPAU, s.)., D. E. REUBEN,
ZAFAR FUTEHALLY & J. C DANIEL

APRIL 1965

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| EpITORS,
Hornbill House, Journal of the Bombay Natural
Opp. Lion Gate, History Society

Apollo Street, Fort,
Bombay 1-BR.

VOLUME 62, NO. 1—APRIL 1965

Date of publication : 31-7-1965

CONTENTS

THE YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING, Vanellus malabaricus (BODDAERT), A TROPICAL
DRY-SEASON NESTER. II. Additional data on breeding biology. By

S. D. Jayakar and H. Spurway. (With a plate) .. cm 1
ON THE ‘ SUDANO-DECCANIAN’ FLORAL ELemMent. By V. M. Meher-Homiji.
(With a map and one plate containing 8 graphs) : 15
ZOOGEOGRAPHY OF TERMITES OF ASSAM REGION, INDIA, WITH REMARKS ON
SPECIATION. By M. L. Roonwal and O. B. Chhotani 19
THE- VEGETATION OF MANortI AND MADH ISLANDS IN BomBay. By Y. D. Pradhan
and Y. Satyanarayan 32
COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES: FAMILY BOMOLOCHIDAE—3. By
, N. Krishna Pillai. (With eight text-figures) 38
THE ExOTIC FLORA OF KODAIKANAL. By K. M. Matthew, s. J. 56
A NOTE ON THE MANTIDS AND TETTIGONIDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE
BomBAY NATURAL History Society. By N. T. Nadkerny 76
ON THE MARINE FAUNA OF THE GuLF oF Kutcu. Part I1I—Pelecypods. By
H. L. Kundu. (With fifteen plates) 84.
MorE CYANOPHYCEAB OF HOSHIARPUR: III. By P. C. Vasishta. (With two
plates) x, a BS, Sle .. 104
MARINE TIMBER-BORING ORGANISMS OF THE INDIAN COAST. Report on a
Collection from the South-East Coast of India, with Notes on Distribution
in the Indo-Pacific Area. By N. Balakrishnan Nair T4190
REVIEWS 7 :
1. The World of the Tiger. (R.C. M.) we. 132
2. The Mountain Gorilla. (J.C. D.) . 133
3. The Camellia Treasury. (A. J.A.) ty 335
4. Animal Populations. (J. C. D.) 721366.
5. The Oxford Book of Birds. (H. A.) ahi
6. A New Dictionary of Birds. (S. A.) . 138
7. An Introduction to the Mammals of Sabah. (H. A.) . 139
8. The World of Birds: A Comprehensive Guide to General
Ornithology. (S. A.) . 140
9. Never Cry Wolf. (Z. F.) catat
10. Call of the Tiger (H. A.) . 144

“a

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:

1. Habits of the Rhesus Macaque Macaca mulatta (Zimmermann) in the
Sunderbans, 24-Parganas, West Bengal. By Ajit Kumar Mukherjee and Sumit
Gupta (p. 145). 2. Wild dogs and village dogs. By E. R. C. Davidar (p. 146).
3. Breeding of the Indian Wild Ass Equus hemionus khur Lesson in captivity.
By F. Gaekwad (p. 148). 4. The Hispid Hare [Caprelagus hispidus (Pearson)].
By H. Khajuria (p. 149). 5. Young of the Indian Gerbille, Tatera indica indica
Hardwicke. (With a photograph). By H. Khajuria (p. 150). 6. Some notes on the
Painted Partridge [Francolinus pictus (Jardine & Selby)] around Bombay: A

correction. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 152). 7. Food of the Whitebreasted '

Kingfisher [Halcyon smyrnensis (Linnaeus)]. By T. J. Roberts and C. Priddy
(p. 152). 8. Notes on Indian Birds 3—The Alpine Swift, Apus melba
(Linnaeus), with a description of one new race. (With a _ text-figure). By
Humayun Abdulali (p. 153). 9. Swallows Hirundo rustica Linnaeus roosting
on wires. (With a plate). By P. V. George (p. 160). 10. On the occurrence of
Finsch’s Starling (Sturnus vulgaris poltaratskyi Finsch) near Bombay. By
Humayun Abdulali (p. 161). 11. Plants eaten by Uromastix microlepis Blanford
and other notes on this lizard in eastern Arabia. By J. Mandaville (p. 161).
12. Occurrence of the Sunfish Ranzania truncata (Retzius) near Veraval, along
Gujarat coast. By M. J. Pradhan (p. 163). 13. Remarkable growth of fish in
Sandaimedu demonstration tank (North Arcot District, Madras State), with a
note on its ecology. By A. Sreenivasan (p. 165). 14. On Eocyzicus sp.
(Conchostraca, Branchiopoda) at Panchgani, W. India. (With one text-figure). By
Ashok A. Karande and N. B. Inamdar (p. 167). 15. Variant behaviour of
Chalybion bengalense Dahlb. (Hymenoptera, Sphecidae). By S. D. Jayakar
and H. Spurway (p. 169). 16. Ixodes kerri Rao, 1954: A synonym of Ixodes
petauristae Warburton, 1933 (Acarina: Ixodidae). (With one text-figure).
By T. Ramachandra Rao (p. 172). 17. Description of the nymph and larva of
Ixodes petauristae Warburton, 1933. (With four figures in one plate). By
P. K. Rajagopalan (p. 174). 18. Fruiting of Plumeria. By D.G. Sevastopulo
(p. 176). 19. Micrococca mercurialis (Linn.) Benth.: An addition to the
Flora of the Upper Gangetic Plain. By K.M.M. Dakshini and R.K.S. Chauhan
(p. 177). 20. Pogonatum subperichaetiale Card. et Vard.: A new record from
the Himalayas. (With a plate). By B. M. Wadhwa and J. N. Vohra
(p. 177). 21. Melhania hamiltoniana Wall.: A new record for Bombay State.
(With a plate). By A. R. Chavan, S. D. Sabnis, and S. J. Bedi (p. 179).
22. New record of Utricularia minutissima Vahl in South India. (With one plate).
By R. Vasudevan Nair (p. 180). 23. Preservatives for freshwater algae. By
N. D. Kamat (p. 182).

THE OPENING OF HORNBILL House: 13-3-1965

Notes AND NEws ete gis e5 as we

In Vol. 62 at p. 139 in the third line of the Hees of Review
No. 7: for ‘ 1946’ read ‘ 1964 ’.

JOURNAL
OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL
HISTORY SOCIETY

1965 APRIL Vol. 62 No. 1

The Yellow-wattled Lapwing, Vanellus
malabaricus (Boddaert), a tropical
| dry-season nester

II. Additional data on breeding biology

S. D. JAYAKAR AND H. SPURWAY
Genetics and Biometry Laboratory, Government of Orissa, Bhubaneswar

(With a plate)

“INTRODUCTION

We have recently published (Jayakar & Spurway 1965) an account
of the incubation behaviour of Vanellus malabaricus in the large exposed
gardens of a residential area of New Capital, Bhubaneswar. This paper
continues these observations, and provides provisional answers to some
of the questions raised.

The terrain consists of lateritic rock with a thin top-soil recently
cleared in order to be covered with relatively large thinly-spaced build-
ings. These building operations ensure that, in addition to the out-
door taps, which are a feature of India, there are also many temporary
sources of water. The average monthly rainfalls in millimetres begin-
ning with January are: 14:5, 23°6, 16:0, 23:4, 67°3, 216°7, 336°8, 320°0,
248°8, 158°0, 53°3, and 4°8.

The observations were primarily made from our house, which is
shaded in the present map (see Plate) and shown in part in the map in
our previous paper. The map shows an area of about 15 hectares or
37 acres which can be critically surveyed from the roof of this house.

2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

Within this area tarred roads are shown hatched. These are bordered
by pavements and/or grass verges. Other roads and lanes are shown
by parallel lines. To the north and north-east uneven treeless waste-
land extends for over 350m. In all other directions visibility is abruptly
obscured by buildings (not all of which are marked) and their associated
hedges and trees. Nests were of course regularly visited, and were also
watched from various verandahs of the same house. This area was
surveyed on most days from 21/xii/63 usually for over an hour in the
evening while a roosting census was being taken.

We have previously discussed the idiosyncracies of wattle and wing
coloration by which we distinguish the members of a pair. Similar
characters were appreciated in pair 6 but not pairs 5and 7. The male of
pair 6 (again defined as the animal who invariably trod during copula-
tion) walked awkwardly and flew with his right leg dangling.

Once again we thank our neighbour Shri S. K. Ghose for allowing
us to watch nest 3’ and the tap, both of which were in his garden.

BREEDING ECONOMY

Table I lists some figures for the 7 clutches found during 1964 ; and
the location of these and the associated territories are mapped in the
Plate.

TABLE I

DATES OF OBSERVATIONS MADE

Clutch 3 4 Bi

Norte : Bold face indicates date nest found.

1—helped out of shell (see Jayakar & Spurway 1965).
2__ynhatched eggs collected.

JOURN. BOMBAY Nat. HIsT. Soc.

»
aoe?”

x
s oo”
®2q 790d?

o 20m

Area kept under observation from the roof of our house.

The house is closely hatched in the figure. Widely hatched portions indicate tarred roads.
Other pairs of parallel lines indicate untarred roads or public areas bordering roads. Nests

are indicated by numbered dots. Approximate maximum boundaries of territories shown by
broken ines as fOlLOWS > wer eee anew nome ene DAI 3; essemeneennne pail 6;

Pegqeesecee ss pair 7 ob gag 0 moe 0 row mut pair 5.
fan

i Mi, f “
“oR
EN

rads be
pt

wera
tye AN

AY
baila

ere
CRG

oy
He)

YELLOW-WATILED LAPWING, A TROPICAL DRY-SEASON NESTER 3

Pairs 3 and 6 laid two clutches each: 3 and 3’, and 6 and 6’ respec-
tively. On 6/iii, pair 3 led their only hatchling of clutch 3 away from
the nest leaving 2 unhatched eggs. On 4/iv, they were first recorded
nest-building and copulating in the region where they laid clutch 3’,
and one or both of them were seen in this area on several days between
then and the finding of the nest. We can presume that the first egg of
clutch 3’ was laid on 9/iv or 10/iv. Therefore this pair, who were rearing
a first brood, selected a new nest site about 29 days after they had deserted
their first nest, and laid the first egg of their second clutch 5 to 6 days
later. Pair 6 lost their first clutch completely on 13/v, and within 2
days, on 15/v, they were nest-building on their new site, and they also
laid the first egg of their second clutch 6 days after site selection.

All seven clutches contained 4 eggs. Pair 3 were incubating before
the fourth egg of clutch 3’ was laid ; and pair 6 incubated their first
clutch from the laying of the first egg. Indeed they often sat on the nest
on 20/iv while nest-building by flicking pebbles. They were not watched
during the hotter and therefore critical hours while clutch 6’ was still
incomplete. Both clutches we observed through their laying (clutches
6 and 6’) took 5 days to lay, the last egg being 4 days younger than the
‘first, and it seems a rule that birds, unlike reptiles, lay not more than one
egg a day. On both occasions where all four eggs hatched (clutches 5
and 7) the whole clutch hatched in approximately 24 hours. In nest 1
in 1963, where the process was watched in detail, the fourth egg-shell was
removed from the nest 23 hours 10 min. after the first. The timing of
the three hatches of nest 6’ seems abnormally long, but even so it is one
day shorter than the laying period of the full clutch of four. Therefore
some regulation seems to occur causing the eggs to hatch approximately
simultaneously so intra-litter selection need not be invariably biased in
favour of the first hatched. Considering the early afternoon tempera-
tures to which the nests of V. malabaricus are exposed, it is not surprising
that incubation is not delayed until the clutch is complete. Such delay
is the device used by birds nesting in cooler microclimates to obtain
synchronisation of hatching. One is reminded of the observation that
the litters of ‘ live-bearing ’ fish (Poeciliidae) consist of fry which are all
born at the same developmental stage though the individual embryonic
lives range from 3 to 4 weeks (Turner 1937).

We have no undepleted clutch from which to calculate the incubation
period defined as the interval between the first oviposition and the first
hatch. Using this measure on depleted clutch 6’ we obtain 29 days.
Considering the /ast oviposition to the /ast hatch we obtain 27 and 28
days from the depleted clutches 3’ and 6’ respectively. If we are correct
that nest 7 was not established on 8/v, the first egg could not have been
laid earlier than 9/v, and therefore the incubation period was as short
as 26 days.

4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) —

Considering these figures we can discuss the fact that clutch 7 was
laid in the same scrape as nest 4. Unfortunately we did not learn to
recognize pair 4 morphologically. Wynne-Edwards (1962, pp. 156 and
408) gives references to the re-use of a scrape during a series of seasons
by different individuals of the same species, or by different species, and
we do not yet know for this species how complete the re-apportioning
of territories can be within one breeding season. A territory containing
this scrape would be expected to extend into gardens which are invisible
from our roof, as the territory of pair 7 was later seen to do. Therefore
it is possible that pair 4 built a-nest in one of these between 19/ii and
13/v, meanwhile relaxing its hold on the north-western part of its terri-
tory which was temporarily taken over by pair 6. Certainly birds were
repeatedly seen in this area screaming at inter-specific intruders and dis-
playing at the other conspecific pairs. However pair 6 and 7, who both
finally held territories to the east of that of pair 3, were not recognized
morphologically until they were associated with their respective nest
sites. . Using the times obtained from the other nests it is chronologically
possible for pair 4 to have built a nest (4’) where it could not be seen by
us, from which the young were reared, and that nest 7 represents nest 4”.
There were no flying young birds seen accompanying pair 7 in the manner
that the survivor of their first clutch accompanied pair 3 for more than
half the incubation period of their second clutch (see next section).
However, it is possible that the young may sometimes leave their parents
as soon as they can fly, or the hypothesised brood 4’ may have been lost
late in childhood.

The hatching success for 1964 is 15 out of 28, and if we add our two
1963 nests in which all the eight eggs hatched 23 out of 36, i.e. so far, it
lies between 54 and 64%. In these estimates we make one logically
‘dubious assumption which is probably biologically correct. The earlier
hatchlings certainly step off the nest before all the eggs are hatched.
Therefore, if an egg disappears before hatching has begun, we consider
that egg lost (we have seen one taken by a crow, Corvus macrorhynchos),
but if an egg disappears after hatching has begun, we assume a success-
ful hatch, the shell having been removed and the chick having left the
nest. Though our only unhatched eggs occurred in nests we were
watching, we do not think this is because we minimised predation of the
nest. .

We are only certain that 4 of our hatchlings survived to fly, on two
occasions 32 days after it, or its eldest sibling, hatched. It is probable
that one chick of family 5 also survived, but this family was only recog-
nized by its territory which was far away. Also, it is just possible that
family 7 moved to a region of their territory not visible from our roof
before any of clutch 7 were able to fly. That only 5 young from 28
eggs, laid by 8 or 10 parents, survived even infancy may not be disas-

YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING, A TROPICAL DRY-SEASON NESTER §

trous in the light of the mortality rates Spon in V, vanellus (Lack
1954 ; Haldane 1955).

The Plate shows, outlined with various broken lines, the areas on -
which a given pair was seen feeding at any time during the season. We
consider that these feeding areas coincide with the territories. Firstly,
at any given instant they were mutually exclusive but contiguous, there
being no neutral ground between them. Had there been a neutral
ground between territories, at no place would more than one pair dis-
play, which was certainly commonly seen. No adult intruder, if noticed,
was ever allowed to forage, but was greeted with agonistic behaviour,
which was often followed by copulation by the pair in possession. These
displays against intruders occurred not only at the boundaries between
two territories but well within them. During our continuous watching
in February we saw in detail many examples of the latter. If these were
attempts by newcomers to appropriate some of the territory held by
pair 3 in our garden they were unsuccessful. However pair 6 did move
in on some of the territory previously held by 3 in the wasteland. The
territory of 3 was at its largest early in the season, the pair staking a claim
exceptionally early according to all previous authors. However this
territory did not constantly contract but its boundaries fluctuated, per-
haps even from day to day, according to whether pair 3 or pair 6 were
occupied, for example with incubation, in a region remote from the dis-
puted area. From the map, pair 7 appears to have similarly invaded
part of the territory of pair 6. However as clutches 4 and 7 were laid
in the same scrape, they may well have been laid by the same parents (see
above). On this interpretation the relevant area was first held by pair
4 who relaxed their- hold for a while and subsequently re-established it.

Secondly, the nests were also in these feeding territories. Nest 3’
was certainly in the area held while nest 3 was being incubated, and nest
6’ probably in the area associated with nest 6.

Finally, no chick too young to fly was ever seen feeding outside the
territory held by its parents, and this was exceptional even after they did
fly.

The maximum areas of territories 3 and 6 as shown in the map were
3.47 hectares (8.75 acres) and 2.59 hectares (6.40 acres) respectively.
These are much larger than those of the European lapwing V. vanellus
which range from 0.5 to around 2 acres. This is correlated with the
different economy of V. vanellus where both the adults and the chicks
feed outside their territories. These are only exceptionally adjoining,
and at a period when V. vanellus was considered a common species,
several frequencies ranging from 2 to 3 pairs to 18 pairs per 1000 acres
were found on different habitats (Nicholson 1951, p. 77, and Wynne-
Edwards 1962 for summaries), compared with the 5 (or 4) pairs of
V, malabaricus we observed in an area of about 40 acres.

6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

MEMBER OF A FIRST BROOD ACCOMPANYING ITS PARENTS DURING
INCUBATION OF A SECOND BRoop

After leaving nest 3, and before we found their second clutch (nest
3’), the parents were regularly seen with their chick in their territory
during the 14 or 2 hours before dusk while S.D.J. was making another
set of observations from the roof. They were seen on all days when
they were looked for, except two, and were seen to copulate three times.
It is possible that they had a daily routine of movements within their
territory, since on 9 days we saw them in our garden, or the garden to
the west, at dusk, having just arrived there from the wasteland to the
north. The solitary chick was always seen in the company of its parents
until 7/iv, 3 days after it was first seen to fly, and even after that, it could
frequently be found with one or other of them. This remained true on
and after 12/iv when we discovered nest 3’ with three eggs already
present. The chick was seen often enough during the inspections of
nest 3’ for us to presume that it still spent a large part of its time in the
company of its parents, and this was confirmed during our periods of
continuous observation begun on 26/iv. During these periods on
26/iv and 27/iv, the chick groomed and fed in regions of shade near the
new nest including the so-called tap-region which had so much valence
for the incubating birds (see next section).

At this time the young bird was only a little smaller than an adult,
and the black of its head and the yellow of its legs and wattles were paler.
The wattles were not fully grown and did not overlap over the beak and
forehead. The back was brindled instead of a uniform fawn.

When watching was continuous, it was observed that both parents
pecked, lunged, flew, or ran a few steps at the chick, causing it to retreat.
The chick also avoided walking too near to its parents, making detours
to avoid passing within 40-50 cm. of either of them. Finally at 14.56
on 27/iv the father flew over the chick causing it also to fly. After both
had landed the father performed, for a second or so, the display which
a pair use, often together, at a conspecific intruder in their territory.
This is derived from a ground pecking movement and quite characteris-
tic and conspicuous, being highly ritualized. The father then ran a few
steps after the chick. They paused 1.25 m. apart ; then the chick walked
east into the next (the observers’) garden and spent about an hour eating,
grooming, sitting, and stretching. After flying away, it did not return
to its family or to their territory at least until it had further developed so
as to have become unrecognizable. This breaking of filial ties, like
several other crises in the lives of this species (Jayakar & Spurway 1965,
and next section) coincided with a severe storm from 19.30-20.30 the
same evening (27/iv). It is not known whether this storm played any
part in disrupting the family, nor whether the ritualized display was

YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING, A TROPICAL DRY-SEASON NESTER 7

more potent than the several pecks in driving off the young bird, who
had spent over 17 days in the company of its parents after they had
started incubating a second clutch.

As the whole of the first clutch of pair 6 was lost, there were no half-
grown birds to accompany their parents during the incubation of clutch
6’. Lack (1954, p. 95) considers that pairs of V. vanellus never rear
more than one brood a year.

EGG-WETTING BY PAIR 3

Owing to details of cultivation, we were unable to find in either
garden, a viewing point acceptable to the birds, from which we could
see enough to justify continuous watching of the second nest (3’) of pair
3. However as this nest was located in the same general region as nest
1 in 1963 and incubated even later in the season, it provided an oppor-
tunity to see whether birds who had not wetted their eggs during Feb-
ruary and March would do so during April and May. Therefore,
beginning just after noon on 26/iv, the tap at which pair 1 had wetted
themselves before going to the nest was watched during the hottest hours
of the day from the same verandah as had been used previously to watch
the earlier nesting behaviour of pair 3 (Jayakar & Spurway 1965).

This tap, which is 23 metres from the south hedge of the garden
immediately to the west of ours and 5.5 metres west of the hedge bet-
ween them, is carried on a vertical concrete post on the west edge of a
concrete pavement 1.25 m. square surrounded by a rim about 10 cm.
high. The pavement slopes towards a drain in the east side near its
south-east corner. As the tap dripped continuously, this drain stimulated .
a dense growth of small herbs just east of the rim obstructing observation
of that region of the pavement in which there was always standing water. —

Among these herbs grows a banana. The Duranta sp. hedge to the
east of the tap is fortunately thin in this region, but nevertheless, during
the period of observation, there was little unshaded ground between it
and the banana. The region of the above-listed objects will be called
the tap-region. During the periods of observation, the birds seldom left
this tap-region during their off-duty periods, as we have called the period
between stepping off and stepping onto the nest, and which we will dis-
cuss in detail elsewhere, The birds seldom walked through any of the
regions of shade of eddies which had been their favourites while off duty
from their earlier nest, and never behaved as though these had any
valence for them.

Except on 26/iv, watching was always begun before 11.00 and except
on 10/v and 11/v continued until 16.30. On 10/v watching was dis-
continued at 16.01 because the light was too poor to see the birds both
of whom were rushing about and screaming. A violent dust storm began

8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

at 16.06 followed by heavy rain at 16.08. This storm may have pre-
cipitated the desertion of the nest, and certainly introduced a doubt as
to when this occurred. After the female left the tap pavement at 15.19,
and the male left the nest at 15.46, neither bird was seen either to enter
the tap-region or incubate again, though both parents not only flew but
ran about screaming when three chicks and a sterile egg were observed
in the nest at 17.10. On 11/v, as the family had not visited either the
nest or the tap pavement that day, and as the chicks had walked out of
the observers’ field of vision before 13.49, watching was discontinued at
15.05. As 11/v was thus outside the incubation period the hours of
watching are not included in Table IV.

The nest itself was obscured by the hedge, and during the middle of
the day, the high sun flattered the animals’ disruptive coloration making
them almost invisible. But when the sun was lower, both in the morn-
ing and evening, the sitting bird was more conspicuous. However on
all but 4 occasions the bird walked directly from the tap to the nest, so
when the bird left the tap it was an indication that a take-over was
imminent and this could be watched for. We therefore obtained timings
of the duty periods but have not been able to add to our previous notes
on the behaviour of the bird on duty on or around the nest.

A bird was always present on the nest when watching was begun
(except on 11/v), but on 8 occasions, including 10/v, the nest was un-
covered when watching ceased.

During these observation periods, the female was seen to take over
incubation on 43 occasions and the male on 42 occasions. During any
one observation period the number of times the two sexes assume duty
cannot differ by more than one, because these alternate, but though the
difference between the totals for the two sexes will be thus reduced, the
virtual equality observed is more than a tautology.

When a bird wag relieved from nest 3’, on all but 10 occasions s (in-
cluding the 3 last on 10/v and 5 others at the end of the watching period)
it approached the tap usually at a brisk walking pace, but in strong sun-
shine it sometimes ran and jumped or stumbled over the rim of the pave-
ment. They never flew. Once in the tap area, usually on the pavement,
it. groomed with high intensity usually drinking immediately on arrival.
The choice of the tap and its surroundings as an off-duty resting place
during a period of higher temperatures, and the introduction of repeated
drinking sooner or later among the grooming movements, confirms our
previous interpretation of this grooming as a method of lowering the
body temperature by evaporation. The animal usually walked in and
out of the tap pavement and the various regions of shade and eddies
between its eastern edge and the hedge between the two gardens. The
grooming gradually became more desultory as the inter-duty period
progressed, but on 58 occasions the animals began to crouch on the wet

YELLOW-WATITLED LAPWING, A TROPICAL DRY-SEASON NESTER 9

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10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

pavement, or in the shallow water sometimes bending forward so that
their breasts as well as their bellies were wetted. Usually they walked
a few steps in this position. The belly feathers were erected during
these movements and the dirty water could be seen smeared on them.
This crouching which may occur only once or may be repeated 20 times
usually occurred only in the later part of an off-duty period. The
exceptions were few and during the hottest periods when the animals in
their hurry fell over the rim of the pavement and splashed about in the
water immediately. While performing these crouches, the animals
sometimes disappeared behind the plants growing by the drain often
for several minutes and then walked calmly into view from behind them.
At these times we have presumed that the birds were sitting down in the
relatively deeper water behind the plants. On the five occasions when
only disappearances and no crouches were recorded in off-duty periods,
all for the female, we have presumed that she wet her belly, because such
a sitting down would be the most efficient method of achieving this.

A belly-wetting crouch was frequently the last act performed in the
tap-region before the birds stepped off the south rim of the pavement to
begin the very characteristic march to the nest. The time taken for this
was very variable, but it could be brisk enough to be completed in under
a minute. Both birds took a rather stereotyped curved path going con-
siderably to the west of the straight line between the tap and the nest.
Table II gives the distributions of the time between the last crouch, or
failing this the last reappearance from the drain region, and the time at
which the bird stepped onto the nest. From this table can be seen how
few were the occasions when the period between the wetting and the
assumption of duty was so long that it was doubtful if the bird was wet
when it took over the nest.

No differences were observed between the frequencies with which
the male and the female wet their bellies either as the incubation period
advanced, or as the ground or air temperatures rose, or at different
hours of the day. Therefore, in Tables III and IV, the figures for the
two sexes are added together. The figures are arranged in Table III
according to ascending values of ground temperatures. These were
taken so as to be as similar as possible to those to which the nest was
exposed. The maximum air temperatures and the humidities (at some
time between 08.00 and 10.00) being collected for another purpose were
taken indoors in a non-airtight and frequently opened cupboard. These
are thus only correlated with the conditions surrounding the eggs, though
it should be stressed that in the tropics the interiors of non-airconditioned
houses are much more open and ventilated than in temperate climates.
From this table it is clear that the frequency of belly-wetting, and there-
fore egg-wetting, increases with rise in temperature. This is confirmed
by Table IV in which the data are rearranged according to the hours of

YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING, A TROPICAL DRY-SEASON NESTER 11

TABLE III

Re er renner ene teter neeeerneeeee en nnnmmiamaaanee

Temperature a ; Assumptions of duty
7 8 ae Bevel BLOB
| 5 S watching | a in ce
le ln a Pe ga ee
2 Oe Son ee 3 = se | 2s
aces. | 3 Be poe
O = ra c= ae
| | hrs. min.
|
44.5 | 33.5 | 74 | Shiva a) alee 3) 3 2 6
49 31.5 MA 26/ IV 4 1 1 1 0 2 0
30:5 33 I 2 fay 6 D4 2 =| 1 als)
a2 Sc.) 71 ‘TIN 6 3 3 5 1 .83
53 32.5 74 27/iv 5 58 1 1 Z 0 1.0
54 35 73 6/Vv 6 Salk 3 ta 1 83
Ses 33.5 ql 30/iv 5 SOM eee 2 1 3 ID)
56 34.5 71 2/V 6 Seles, 4 2 .67
56 34 68 3/v 6 Sepia 1 4 v4
57 35 (Ee 4/v 6 37 3 a 2 .67
57 34.5 68 5/v 5 SHA ests! 4 1 8
BPS 4.5 il 71 1/v 6 | ae 0 1.0
58 34.5 74 9/v 6 So 4p} 8 1 89
58 35.5 Te 10/v 3) PGE Gul ca7 Bll 2 85
60 33.5 75) 8/v 6 31) 4 | ae 0 | 1.0
Total..| 86 43 | 43 | 42 | 6 22 Pee
| |
47.5 | 35:5 35] 11/v 4 33 | 0 | 0 | 0 nas 0 |
TABLE IV
; Debate Change-overs
hour of day |
. with | without | wetting
| WEB. al ¢ J | wetting | wetting | Toni
10.30— 13 03 Bele 5 5 | 6 | 45
11.30— 14 12 7 9 12 4 75
12.30— 15 9 7 12 4 75
13.30— 15 7 eae tae 1 93
14.30— 2) 10 6 14 2 Beis)
15.30— 14 28 4 7, 6 5 S20)
Total 86 43 | 43 | 42 | 63 | 22 |

the day showing that the frequency has a peak during the period just
after noon,

12. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

To sum up: pair 3 who did not damp their first clutch of eggs early
in the season repeatedly damped their second clutch produced when the
season was more advanced and the weather was, on the whole, hotter.
However the relationship between the temperature and egg-wetting is
not simple. Though, during the incubation of clutch 3, 54°C. was the
highest ground temperature recorded, on no fewer than 21 days out of
the 28 days during which this nest was watched temperatures of 44.5°C.
and higher were recorded. As the eggs of clutch 3’ were damped at
these temperatures this behaviour cannot be a direct response to a ground
temperature above a critical value. |

In 1963 the female of pair 1 damped her feathers twice within the
hour following the removal of the last egg-shell from the nest, but not
subsequently. The young, who were still in the nest, were not seen to
suck them. It is possible that this continuation of damping after all the
eggs were hatched was a lag persisting during the shift to behaviour
appropriate to the chick-shepherding stage of parental activities and may
be compared with the observation that the last time a parent stepped off
nest 3, this was accompanied by nest-building (Jayakar & Spurway
1965). After they deserted nest 3’, neither parent was seen to approach
the tap or perform any action in the tap-region, thus suggesting that
none of its previous valence remained. This desertion of both sites
simultaneously, which probably occurred on the late afternoon of 10/v,
was quite complete by the morning of 11/v when the parents and three
chicks were observed many times before systematic observation was
begun. There was no parental reaction when the unhatched egg was
collected at 14.00. However this observation that belly-damping ceases
at nest desertion, feathers not being used to carry water to the young
birds as in Pterocles spp. (Marchant 1961; 1962) is not as definitive as
could be wished, because the storm on the evening of 10/v had caused
a considerable drop in the temperatures on 11/v (Table III). It is still
possible therefore that water for drinking would be carried to the young
at higher circumambient temperatures. It is also possible that the
temperature thresholds for watering mobile chicks that can, and do,
seek shade might be higher than that for damping stationary exposed
eggs.

In our previous paper we discussed comparable behaviour in other
species. We have since discovered two other descriptions, both of
behaviour much more similar to that here described, and both occurring
in species which Bock (1958) now includes in the genus Vanellus with
malabaricus, which he considers, incorrectly, to be an African species.
Owing to the kindness of Rev. W. Serle, we have read his account (1939)
of a colony of Xiphidiopterus albiceps in Northern Nigeria cooling their
eggs by wetting their underparts. Crossley (in litt.) observed indi-
viduals of Hoplopterus spinosus performing the same action in July 1952

- YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING, A TROPICAL DRY-SEASON NESTER 13

in Egypt. In contrast, Helversen (1963) observed during May 1962 in
north-east Greece that individuals of this species sat continuously on
their nest throughout the night, approximately from 18 to 09 hours, and
left these unattended for considerable periods during the rest of the day.
Therefore, like V. malabaricus, V. spinosus varies its incubation behaviour
according to the demands put on it by the environment. In the northern
part of the range of the species, incubation is primarily to warm the eggs,
whereas in hotter regions at least on some occasions it can be used to
cool them. We thank James Ferguson-Lees Esq. for introducing us
to Roy Crossley Esq.
SUMMARY

Seven clutches were laid by 5 (or 4) pairs of Vanellus malabaricus
in an area of 15 hectares or 37 acres during the 1964 breeding season.
The incubation period ranged from 26-29 days. The earliest that a chick
was seen to fly was 32 days after hatching.

Young from two clutches laid during the same season, by the same
hen, in different scrapes, were raised. A chick of a first clutch, already
able to fly, accompanied its parents while they were incubating their
second clutch, and was driven from the territory by both physical attacks
and agonistic behaviour.

A scrape was re-used the same season, but it is not known whether
the two clutches were laid by the same hen.

The territories in our area were over 2.5 hectares. Unlike those of
V. vanellus, they were contiguous and the adults and chicks fed in them
exclusively. Their boundaries altered during a season, as areas were
ceded, perhaps temporarily, to later arriving pairs.

During the hotter parts of the day, and the season, one pair of parents
cooled the eggs of their second clutch by wetting their breasts and bellies
in standing water immediately before walking on to the nest. This
behaviour was not performed during the incubation of their first clutch.

REFERENCES

Bock, W. J. (1958) : A generic review
of the plovers (Charadriinae, Aves).
Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool.-118 : 27-97.

HALDANE, J. B. S. (1955): The cal-
culation of mortality rates from ringing
data. Acta XI Congr. Int. Ornith., Basel:
454-458.

HELVERSEN, O. v. (1963) : Beobach-
tungen zum verhalten und zur brutbio-
logie des Spornkiebitzes (Hoplopterus
spinosus). J. Orn. 104 : 89-96.

JAYAKAR, S. D. & SpuRWAY, H. (1965) :
The yellow-wattled lapwing, a tropical
dry-season nester [Vanellus malabaricus
(Boddaert), Charadriidae]. I. The loca-
lity and the incubatory adaptations.
Zool. Jahrb., Abt. allgemeine Zoologie und
Physiologie.

Lack, Davip (1954): The Natural
Regulation of Animal Numbers. Oxford.

MARCHANT, S. (1961): Observations
on the breeding of the Sandgrouse
Pterocles alchata and senegallus. Bull.
B.O.C. 81: 134-141.

——— (1962): Watering of young in
Pterocles alchata. Bull. B.O.C. 82: 123-
124.

NICHOLSON, E. M. (1951): Birds and
Men. London.

SERLE, W. (1939): Field observations
on some Northern Nigerian birds. Jbis
for October : 654-699.

TURNER, C. L. (1937): Reproductive
cycles and superfetation in poeciliid
fishes. Biol. Bull. 72 : 145-164.

WYNNE-EDWarDs, V. C._ (1962):
Animal Dispersion in relation to social
behaviour. Edinburgh and London.

14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

Note added in proof

Vince (Nature 203 : 1192-3) has demonstrated that eggs of Colinus
virginianus in synthetic clutches, the members of which were put
together only after different periods of artificial incubation, hatched at
approximately the same time.

K. R. L. Hall (Ostrich, Maart 1964: 3- -16) has seen a first brood
young of Vanellus (Hoplopterus) armatus stay with its parents until the
second brood was hatched. It was then driven away, Hall thinks
because of the increased aggressiveness of the parents to any bird that
approaches them at this time.

Mr. Crossley’s observations on V. spinosus have been published
(Brit. Birds 57: 515-6). Hall (loc. cit.) did not report egg-wetting in
the closely related, perhaps even conspecific, armatus which he observed
in Cape Town which, like Greece, has a ‘ mediterranean’ climate.

Thanks to the contributors to the Newsletter for Birdwatchers,
Bombay, we learn that chick-wetting has also been observed in Bubulcus
ibis in West Pakistan (J. O. Wright, in /itt.) and egg-wetting in the
following species : Glareola lactea, Charadrius alexandrinus, Himantopus
himantopus, and Vanellus indicus. These last four, together with Sterna
albifrons, in which it has previously been recorded, were the only species
found by R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji breeding on an exposed island
during May 1962 in Saurashtra (Pavo 2: 1-11). Shri Dharmakumar-
sinhji (in litt.) has seen it performed by Esacus magnirostris and several
Other resident plovers. It seems therefore a widely distributed capacity.

SD. al
H. S.

On the ‘Sudano-Deccanian’
Floral Element

V. M. MeHER-HoMII
Institut Frangais, Pondichéry

(With a map and one plate containing 8 graphs)

Every natural phytogeographic province is individualized by its
special floristic assemblage. This characteristic flora of a phytogeo-
graphic province constitutes the floral element of that territory.

« The floral elements which concern the dry parts of India fall into
two groups :

(1) ‘North African-Indian desert’ element (cf. Blatter ef al.
1929) or the ‘ Saharo-Sindian ’ element (cf. Eig 1931), the characteristic
area of which includes the Sahara, northern Arabia, Mesopotamia,
Persia, and the desertic north-west part of the Indian sub-continent.

As examples of this element may be cited Farsetia aegyptiaca Turr.,
Fagonia cretica L., Heliotropium undulatum Vahl, Launaea glomerata
(L.) Hook., Lycium barbarum L., Malcolmia strigosa Boiss., Oligomeris
subulata (Del.) Boiss., Peganum harmala L., and Periploca aphylla Dene.

(2) ‘Tropical and North African-Indian desert’ element (cf.
Blatter et al. 1929) which comprises Senegambia, Sudan, Abyssinia,
Eritrea, Somaliland, southern Arabia, Socotra and sends represen-
tatives into the dry parts of India especially in the north-west.

The following species exemplify this element : Acacia senegal Willd.,
Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del., Capparis decidua (Forsk.) Pax, Cleome
brachycarpa Vahl, Corchorus depressus (L.) Stocks, Dicoma tomentosa
Cass., Grewia tenax (Forsk.) Fiori, Melhania denhami Br., Polygala
irregularis Boiss., and Zygophyllum simplex L.

This element is also known under the name of ‘ North African
Steppe’ element. However, it may be pointed out that this term is not
thoroughly justifiable, because the element includes species of savanna
and thorn-forest and not of a true steppe. Secondly, steppe vegetation
type is an expression of cold semi-arid climate and not of warm tropical.
- Trochain (1954) has proposed the term ‘ pseudo-steppe ’ for the so-called
steppic vegetation of north Africa because the true climax steppe is res-
tricted to the chernozem soil.

Fig (1931) has designated the term ‘ Sudano-Deccanian’ for this
element, giving the following limits to the Sudano-Deccanian territory.

16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

Throughout the breadth of Africa between the Sahara and the tropical
forest region extends a vast area of savanna and steppe which extends
from Senegambia to Ethiopia and Eritrea; beyond the Red Sea this
territory continues in tropical Arabia and seems to terminate in India
where certain parts, especially of the Deccan, show many ecological and
floristic affinities with Sudanian-Ethiopian savannas and steppes.

An analysis of the floral elements of the dry parts of India carried out
by me (Meher-Homji 1962) offers some objections to the above statement
of Eig and to the validity of the term ‘ Sudano-Deccanian ’ floral element,
in that the analogies between the above-mentioned parts of Africa and
the Deccan are not so pronounced.

Two zones of dry (semi-arid) climates are recognized in India, one
in the north contiguous to the desert of Thar, extending into Rajasthan,
the Punjab, parts of Uttar Pradesh, and north Gujarat. The other semi-
arid zone, situated in the south, includes the Deccan plateau and parts of
Coimbatore, Ramanathapuram, and Tirunelveli districts of Madras.. «

The strength—of the ‘ Tropical and North African-Indian desert ’
(the so-called Sudano-Deccanian) element in the entire southern semi-
arid zone including the Deccan is only 2.6% (Meher-Homyji 1962). The
strength of this element is two times higher (5.4%) in the northern semi-
arid zone. Thus the concentration of this element is in the northern
semi-arid zone rather than in the Deccan.

Further, the bioclimatic map reveals a continuous belt of xopical
sub-desertic bioclimate (type 5) almost throughout. all Senegambia,
Sudan, Ethiopia, southern Arabia, and parts of Rajasthan and the Punjab.
This sub-desertic climate does not enter the Deccan.

It is also interesting to compare the ombrothermic! diagrams of the
stations of the Sudanese region (Graphs 1 to 4 of Nema, Timbuctoo,
El Fasher, and Kidal) with those of Rajasthan (Graphs 5, 6 of Bikaner
and Jodhpur) which resemble each other so much. On the other hand,
the diagrams of the stations of the Deccan (Graphs 7 and 8 of Malegaon
and Hyderabad Dn.) differ considerably from those of the Sudanese
stations. Therefore, from the climatic point of view, also, the Deccan
or the southern semi-arid zone has little in common with the Sudanese
region. The region which presents greater similarity with the Sudanese
zone is the northern semi-arid zone of India both from the climatic and
the floristic view-points : climatically by resemblances in the bioclimatic
conditions and ombrothermic diagrams, floristically by higher percent-
age of the ‘ Tropical and North African-Indian desert ’ element.

Therefore, in my opinion, the term ‘ Sudano-Deccanian’ of Eig is
not justifiable. It would be more reasonable to speak of this element

1 Ombros=rain. For details of ombrothermic diagrams reference may be
made to Bagnouls, & Meher-Homji (1959, p. 228). V.M.M.-H.

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ON THE ‘SUDANO-DECCANIAN FLORAL ELEMENT 17

as ‘ Sudano-Rajasthanian ’, because it is the semi-arid Rajasthan which
offers closer analogies with the Sudan region by consideration of the
bioclimatic conditions and the ombrothermic diagrams.

We have one more reason in changing the term Sudano-Deccanian
to Sudano-Rajasthanian and that is on geographical grounds. The entry
of the ‘ Tropical and North African-Indian desert’ element directly into
the Deccan without penetrating the northern zone does not seem likely,
because of the water barrier provided by the Arabian Sea and secondly
because of the mountain barrier of the Western Ghats. The entry of
this element into the Deccan seems possible only through the northern
zone, for it is this zone that is continuous with the Sudan region through
Pakistan, Iran, and Arabia.

Finally, we may point out that the terminology of ‘ Sudano-Dec-
canian ’ element completely breaks down if we consider the distribution
of the species cited by Eig (1931, 1939) as *‘Sudano-Deccanian’. As
examples may be mentioned Acacia albida, A. laeta, A. seyal, Aristida
sieberiana, Ficus sycomorus, Moringa aptera, and Zizyphus spina-christi,
which never occur in the Deccan. |

As a matter of fact Eig (1931, p. 131) himself admitted the relative
floristic individuality of the Deccan from the rest of the Sudanian ter-
ritory. :

Gruenberg-Fertig (1954) also pointed out the occurrence of only a
very negligible percentage of the flora of Sudan and SW. Arabia in the
Deccan peninsula and on this ground she suggested the separation of the
African and Arabian parts of Eig’s ‘ Sudano-Deccanian’ region from
the Deccan as the Sudanian region.

It is worth mentioning that the eastern limit of this Sudanian region,
which comprised two sub-regions viz. (1) West Sudanian and (2) Eritraeo-
Arabian, was judged to stretch up to Baluchistan through the south-
western corner of Arabia and southern Iran (Zohary 1962). My present
investigation shows that the eastern boundary of the Sudanian region
extends up to Rajasthan.

In the framework of the present study we may also verify the validity
of the term Saharo-Sindian element. On floristic basis, in the Indus
delta (Sind) of 279 species that make up its flora 60 (21.5%) are of
North African-Indian desert (‘ Saharo-Sindian ’) element, common to
the deserts of north Africa and India (cf. Blatter, McCann, & Sabnis
1929). Inthe Thar or the Indian Desert, out of 440 indigenous species
71 (16.1%) are Saharo-Sindian (cf. Blatter & Hallberg 1918). On
climatic grounds, Sind and Thar are characterized by a desertic bio-
climate like the Sahara (Map ). In view of the high percentage of the
element (16 to 21.5%) and of resemblances in the climatic conditions,
the original proposal of the term Saharo-Sindian seems appropriate.

3 ,

18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY .NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

SUMMARY

It is suggested that the term ‘ Sudano-Rajasthanian ’ floral element is

more appropriate than the term ‘ Sudano-Deccanian ’

proposed by

Eig (1931). The arguments in favour of this change are advanced on

floristic and bioclimatic grounds.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Sincere thanks are due to Dr. F. R. Bharucha under whose sugges-

tion this work was carried out.

The author is also grateful to Prof. H.

Gaussen for the excellent facilities offered at the University of Toulouse,

and for his valuable suggestions.

REFERENCES

BAGNOULS, F., & MEHER-Homi, V. M.
(1959) : Bioclimatic types of South-East
Asia. Inst. fr. Pondichery. Tr. Sect. Sci.
& Tech. t. I. Fasc. 4: 227-246.

BLATTER, E., & HALLBERG, P. F. (1918):
Flora of the Indian Desert. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 26: 218-246, 525-551,
811-818, 967-987.

» McCann, C., & SABNIS, T. S.
(1929) : Flora of the Indus Delta. Indian
Botanical Society, Madras.

Eic, A. (1931): Les éléments et les
groupes phytogéographiques auxiliaires
dans la flore Palestinienne. Fedde,
Repert. Beih. 63.
(1939) : The vegetation of the
light soils belt of the coastal plain of
Palestine. Palestine Jour. Bot. Jerusalem,
Ser. J, 1: 255-308.

GRUENBERG-FERTIG, I. (1954) : On the

Sudano-Deccanian: element in the flora
of Palestine. Palestine Jour. Bot. 6:
234-240.
MEHER-HomyI, V. M. (1960): Les
bioclimats du Sub-Continent Indien et
leurs types analogues dans le Monde.
Thése, Toulouse. Documents pour les
Fasies des productions végétales. 4 @) :

(1962) : Phytogeographical
studies of the semi-arid regions of India.
Ph. D. Thesis, Bombay University.

TROCHAIN, J. (1954) : Nomenclature et
classification des milieux vegetaux en
Afrique Noire frangaise. In: Les divi-
sions ecologiques du monde. Colloque
Intern. du C.N.R.S., Paris.

ZOHARY, M. (1962) : Plant life of
Palestine: Israel and Jordan. The
Ronald Press Co., New York.

Zoogeography of Termites of
Assam Region, India, with
remarks on Speciation

aH | BY tte
M. L. ROONWAL, Sc. D. (Cantab.), Director,
AND

O. B. CHHOTANI, M.Sc. (Hons.), Zoologist,
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta

I. INTRODUCTION

The ‘Assam Region’ of eastern India covers an area of about
1,04,048 sq. miles and is composed of five administrative units, namely
the Assam State (50,143 sq. miles), and four centrally administered
areas called the North-East Frontier Agency (NEFA) (34,969 sq. miles),
Manipur (8628 sq. miles), the Naga Hills and Tuensang Area (6276
sq. miles), and Tripura (4032 sq. miles). It presents a remarkable topo-
graphic and ecological variety. Over one-half its area is covered with
hills and mountains, some of them of great height and perpetually show-
bound. The remaining areas are either cultivated or covered with dense
evergreen forests. A detailed account of the plant community in a res-
tricted area (the Imphal Valley, Manipur) has been given by Roonwal
(1949a, pp. 110-116). The climate is ‘humid tropical’ in the plains,
and ‘temperate ’ in the hills. The rainfall is heavy all over the area.

The termite fauna of the Assam Region has until recently been
studied in a more or less desultory way. The following authorities have
contributed to its study: Holmgren (1913), Silvestri (1914), Gardner
(1944), Snyder (1949), and more recently Roonwal & Pant (1953), Roon-
wal & Sen-Sarma (1956, 1960), and Roonwal & Chhotani (1959-62).
Snyder (1949) in his world catalogue listed only eight species from the
Assam Region. As a result of intensive work subsequently, Roonwal &
Chhotani (1962a) listed 34 species, 13 of which were new. This last paper
also gives a map of the area and a full list of references on the termites
of that region.

In the present paper are discussed the zoogeographical significance of
the termite fauna of the Assam Region and its bearing on the speciation
problem. |

20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)
Il. TAXONOMIC DISTRIBUTION

Three of the known 6 families of living termites are represented in
the Assam Region, viz. the families Kalotermitidae, Rhinotermitidae,
and Termitidae. The families not represented are : Mastotermitidae
(Australian only), Hodotermitidae, and Indotermitidae* (the peculiar

family recently described by Roonwal & Sen-Sarma (1960) from Burma;
_ yide also Roonwal 1958, for a preliminary account). A total of 16
genera and 34 species is represented (Table), the distribution of the genera
and the number of species in each of them being as follows :

Fam. I. KALOTERMITIDAE (1 subfamily, 2 genera, 2 species)

Subfam. (i) KALOTERMITINAE
1. Neotermes Holmgren ; ie Al SSD;

2. Cryptotermes Banks | 1 sp.
Fam. II. R#INOTERMITIDAE (3 subfamilies, 3 genera, 6 species)
Subfam. (i) HETEROTERMITINAE ;
3. Reticulitermes Holmgren .. 2 spp.
Subfam. (ii) COPTOTERMITINAE
4. Coptotermes Wasmann 2. 3 Spp.
Subfam. (iii) RHINOTERMITINAE
5. Parrhinotermes Holmgren ; Jit] isp,
Fam. III. TrRMITIDAE (4 subfamilies, 11 genera, 26 species)
Subfam. (i) AMITERMITINAE
6. Anoplotermes Miller sae BEC 0
7. Speculitermes Wasmann rsp,
8. Synhamitermes Holmgren 1 sp.
9. Microcerotermes Silvestri 1’ sp.
Subfam. (ii) TERMITINAE
10. Pseudocapritermes Kemner 1 sp.

11. Capritermes Wasmann op 12 SDD.
Subfam. (iii) MACROTERMITINAE

12. Macrotermes Holmgren eS.

13. Odontotermes Holmgren 8 spp.

14. Hypotermes Holmgren 3 spp.

15. Microtermes Wasmann 3 3. spp. 3
Subfam. (iv) NASUTITERMITINAE oe

16. Nasutitermes Dudley Mf 4 spp.

Total .. 34 spp.-

As is usual in the Indo-Malayan Region, the family most richly rep--
resented is the Termitidae, with 4 subfamilies, 11 genera, and 26 species

(comprising 69°% of the genera and 76% of the species known from the
Assam Region). The genus best represented is Odontotermes (with 8
species or 24% of the total). The three closely allied genera: Odon-
totermes, Hypotermes, and Microtermes contain among themselves- 14

ip eee Te ee

ZOOGEOGRAPHY OF TERMITES OF ASSAM REGION pa

species or 41% of the total. The genus Nasutitermes is also well rep-
resented, with 4 species (12% of the total).

TII. ZooGEOGRAPHY AND SPECIATION
(Table)

For a zoogeographical analysis, the species are arranged below under
the following seven categories, while a more detailed distribution is
given in the Table at pp. 26-31 below :

‘No. OF SPECIES
CATEGORY eee (AND % OF TOTAL : 34)

(i) Species endemic to the Assam Region (Assam State,
NEFA, Naga Hills and Tuensang Area, Manipur,

and Tripura) ng RY 20 (58°8 %)
(ii) Species common with peninsular India (below c.
20°N. latitude) only Me : oe none

(iii) Species common with whole of India (including
peninsular India) and with E. Bengal © Pakistan)

only blues | hg 6 (17°6%)
(iv) Species common with Bits only is os 1 3%)
(v) Species common with Ceylon only se ae _ none

(vi) Species common with the Indo-Malayan Region
(India, Pakistan, Ceylon, Burma, Malaya, Indo-

nesia), either whole or in part i : 16 (47%)
(vii) Species common with the Palaearctic region eo
China) only ... ¥. a po 13%)

(i) Species endemic to the Assam Region (Assam State, NEFA, Naga
Hills and Tuensang Area, Manipur and Tripura) :

1. Neotermes megaoculatus lakhimpuri Roonwal & Sen-Sarma
2. Reticulitermes saraswati Roonwal & Chhotani
3. Parrhinotermes khasii Roonwal & Sen-Sarma
4. Anoplotermes shillongensis Roonwal & Chhotani
5. Speculitermes cyclops rongrensis Roonwal & Chhotani
6. Pseudocapritermes tikadari Roonwal & Chhotani
7. Capritermes latignathus durga Roonwal & Chhotani
8. Macrotermes khajuriai Roonwal & Chhotani
9. Odontotermes assamensis Holmgren
10. Odontotermes flavomaculatus Holmgren & Holmgren
11. Odontotermes giriensis Roonwal & Chhotani
12. Odontotermes horai Roonwal & Chhotani
13. Odontotermes kapuri Roonwal & Chhotani
14. Hypotermes nongpriangi Roonwal & Sen-Sarma
_ 15. Microtermes imphalensis Roonwal & Chhotani
16... Microtermes umsae Roonwal & Chhotani
17. Nasutitermes cherraensis Roonwal & Chhotani
_~ ~18.- -Nasutitermes garoensis Roonwal & Chhotani
-~ 19. -Nasutitermes kali Roonwal & Chhotani
20. Nasutitermes moratus (Silvestri)

ae JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

(11) Species common with peninsular India (below c. 20° N. latitude)

only :

None

| (iii) Species common with whole of India (including peninsular India)
and with E. Bengal (E. Pakistan) only :

| Neotermes megaoculatus Roonwal & Sen-Sarma

(The subspecies N. m. lakhimpuri R. & S. is confined to Assam. 3
Cryptotermes bengalensis Snyder?
Coptotermes heimi (Wasmann)
Synhamitermes quadriceps (Wasmann)
Capritermes dunensis Roonwal & Sen-Sarma
Odontotermes parvidens Holmgren & Holmgren

(iv) Species common with Burma only :

Coptotermes gestroi Wasmann

(v) Species common with Ceylon only :

None

(vi) Species common with the Indo-Malayan Region (India, Pakistan,
Ceylon, Burma, Malaya, Indonesia), either whole or in part :

We
£2:
13:
14.
15.
16.

Neotermes megaoculatus Roonwal & Sen-Sarma
(The subspecies N. m. lakhimpuri R. & S. is confined to Nee )

Cryptotermes bengalensis Snyder

Coptotermes gestroi Wasmann

Coptotermes heimi (Wasmann)

Coptotermes travians Haviland

Speculitermes cyclops Wasmann (The subspecies S. c. VORTENEE Roonwal
& Chhotani is confined to Assam.)

Synhamitermes quadriceps (Wasmann) aiden

Microcerotermes heimi Wasmann

Capritermes dunensis Roonwal & Sen-Sarma

Capritermes latignathus Holmgren (The subspecies C. /. durga Roonwal &
Chhotani is confined to Assam.)

Odontotermes feae (Wasmann)

Odontotermes horni (Wasmann)

Odontotermes parvidens Holmgren & Holmgren

Hypotermes obscuriceps (Wasmann)

Hypotermes xenotermitis (Wasmann)

Microtermes anandi Holmgren

(vii) Species common with Palaearctic region only

Reticulitermes chinensis Snyder (Central China)

It will be seen from the analysis given above that the general zoo-
geographical facies of the termite fauna of the Assam Region is, as is
to be expected, overwhelmingly Indo-Malayan. Out of the 34 species

2 Ahmad (1952, Proc. 4th Pak. Sci Conf., Peshawar, Pt. 3p. 71) regards C:
Censors as a synonym of C. havilandi (Sjostedt). Ww:

ZOOGEOGRAPHY OF TERMITES OF ASSAM REGION Lea

occurring in the Region, the only one which shows some Palaearctic
affinities is Reticulitermes chinensis Snyder (syn. R. assamensis Gardner)
which has been recorded, besides Assam, from the Szechuan Province
in central China.

CAUSES OF SPECIATION

A remarkably large proportion of species, 20 out of 34 or 58°8°%,
are endemic to the Assam Region. This indicates a high rate of specia-
tion in this region which is ecologically characterized by either dense
evergreen forests or hills cut up into innumerable small valleys. In
both these ecological situations, the movements of termites (even of the
winged ones) are relatively restricted by the dense forests or by high
ranges. As aconsequence, the termites are cut up into small or medium-
sized populations which are confined to their patch of dense forest or
their valley, and opportunities of inter-population mixing are few, i.e.
the ‘ migration pressure’ is low. Thus, well-known ‘ population effects’
are called into play in which, as has been shown in medium populations
[the Wright-Dubinin Effect, vide Dubinin (1931), Dubinin & Romas-
choff (1932), and Wright (1931-46)] and in small populations (the Roon-
wal Effect, vide Roonwal 1953, 1954) the variation-intensity is increased
and the process of speciation speeded up (for a discussion of these
effects, vide Roonwal 1947-54). ,

Of the non-endemic termite fauna, none is common with peninsular
India only, and with Ceylon only ; 6 species (17.6%) are common with
the whole of India (including E. Pakistan) only, 1 (3%) common with
Burma only, and 16 (47%) common with the Indo-Malayan Region
(either whole or in part). The species which are rather widely distri-
buted over the Indo-Malayan Region are the following :

1. Coptotermes gestroi Wasmann (India ; Burma)
2. Coptotermes heimi (Wasmann) (India ; W. Pakistan ; also probably middle
Java, Indonesia)
Coptotermes travians Haviland (India ; Malaya ; Indonesia)
Microcerotermes heimi Wasmann (India ; Ceylon)
Odontotermes feae (Wasmann) (India ; Burma)
Odontotermes horni (Wasmann) (India ; Ceylon) _
Hypotermes obscuriceps (Wasmann) (India ; Ceylon)
Hypotermes xenotermitis Wasmann (India ; Burma)
Microtermes anandi Holmgren (India ; Ceylon).

OMNIA Ew

Three genera call for special comment :

Genus Parrhinotermes Holmgren is a small one comprising only 6
species, of which 5 are Indo-Malayan (India, Malaya, Indonesia) and
one Australian. The single species from India, P. khasii R. & S., is
from Assam and. was described by Roonwal & Sen-Sarma (1956)—this
was the first record of the genus from Indian territory.

24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

Genus Anoplotermes Miiller is characterized by the absence of the
soldier caste, only workers and alates (reproductives) being present. It
is a large genus, containing about 45 species of which the majority (73 %/)
are Neotropical (South and Central America), a few (25%) Ethiopian
(Africa), and only one A. shillongensis R. & C., which was recently dis- —
covered by Roonwal & Chhotani (1959, 1960a), is Indian (from Assam).

Like Anoplotermes, the closely allied but much smaller genus Speculi-
termes Wasmann is characterized by the virtual absence of the soldier
caste. It has 7 species of which 4 (or 57°1%) are Neotropical and 3
(42:9 °%) Indo-Malayan. One subspecies, S. cyclops rongrenses Roonwal
& Chhotani, is represented in Assam.

IV. SUMMARY

1. The Assam Region of eastern India, comprising the five
administrative units of Assam State, North-East Frontier Agency,
Manipur, the Naga Hills and Tuensang Areas, and Tripura, is charac-
terized by a remarkable variety of ecological environment. The plains
and the lower areas are ‘ humid-tropical’ and are either cultivated or
covered with dense evergreen forests. The hilly areas (which comprise
over one-half the total area) are ‘ temperate’. The rainfall is heavy all
over the area.

2. The termite fauna of the Assam Region has been studied fairly
intensively in recent years, and a total of 16 genera and 34 species recorded.

3. Three termite families are represented, viz. Kalotermitidae, .
Rhinotermitidae, and Termitidae. The Termitidae contains the largest
number of genera and species—11 genera (69%) and 26 species (76%).

4. The genus Odontotermes contains the largest number of species
(8, or 24%).

5. The termite fauna has been analysed zoogeographically. A
remarkably high proportion (20 species, or 58.8 %) of the fauna is endemic,
_and has not been recorded elsewhere. No species is common with
peninsular India only or with Ceylon only, and one species is common
with Burma only. Six species (17.6%) are common with the Indian
Region as a whole (including E. Bengal in E. Pakistan), and 16 species
(47%) are common with the Indo-Malayan Region. Only one species —
(3%) is common with the Palaearctic Region (central China) only.

6. It is suggested that the very high proportion of endemic species
(about 59 %) is indicative of a high rate of speciation in the region. It is
further suggested that this is due to the peculiar ecological conditions
(dense forests and numerous hill ranges and valleys) which tend to cut
up the distribution into small, semi-isolated populations, and this condi-
tion accelerates the variation-intensity in terms of the Wright- Dubimin
and the Roonwal Effects. .

~~ ZOOGEOGRAPAHY OF TERMITES OF ASSAM REGION

+; REFERENCES

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~JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

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3 SCOPES pane eae ie tet
Po Bee | fee secre ere
oo ao, | eS | zs
oO > © 8 ~f& ae A) 5
@. BR Oo | 4.09
8 S z poe e
. | a me as
7

uoNNqIsiq

yussqy — ‘jUSsoIg +

NOIDaY WVSSY AHL WOU GAIACNOOEA AVA OS SAlOddS ALINUAL FHL JO NOLLNEMIsia TVOIHdVuOOdy

aTavy,

ZOOGEOGRAPHY OF TERMITES OF ASSAM REGION

“(eoLyy)
ueidomyy pue (voroury
[enue 8=6©pue = eoLIOWYy
qinog) [edsido1098U AlasIe]
SI snues oY], “eIpuy woy
Sauldajojdoup snuss 934} Jo
P1IOSEI ISI 9} SI (9 ‘VZ9SI
“0961 Pur : 6S6]) TURIOYYD
3? [eMUOOY Jo Poel su],

*eIPUY WOJJ snuss 9U}
JO PIOSEI ISIY OY} St (9C6T)
eUlIeS-Usg 2 [eMuUOOY Aq
P1oseI oY, ‘soisods uelytel
“sny 9uo yy ‘(eIsouopuy
“eAR[eI «= ‘VIPUT =: soroads
¢) Uedelep-opuy ApaSiey]
SI SAULaJOUIYsDg SNUIS BY],

"AoS8 °2 a)
(esst1p) Ting JO }seo—solo

-ods ae Se ue Anuareddy

‘doreumyu0s
spoou—(eIsouOpuy) eaAre
opp ul osfe Alqeqolg
“UvIsSrkyeG “AM pue vipuy
Te Ul peaynqinsip AOPIAA

!
1

uvdryeyy
~opuy a

uedryleyy
-Opuy —

uvdkeleyy
-Opuy —

uvAeleyy =| *AA)
-Opu] neat
uvAerey,

‘-Opul : —

uvdkyyleyy
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rea.

Cevrrd
7
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ets) ‘1ing)
are Care oe ear ap
(aeistyeg
vem
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-f-

Tue},OyY 2 [PMUOOY Sis
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aVCLUIWNa TIT ‘weg

eULIeS-UES 32 [eMUOOY
NSDYY = SausdajOUlyAIVg °°

purylAaey
| SUDIAD. SauldajojdoD ‘L

i
i
1
i

(uor3wjoHT
|| Snjnadod *> -uks) (uueuU
“Se MA) 1U10Y saudajordo,D hee
| NG
104]sa3 Saudajojdo °¢
| TUe}JOYYD » [eMU0OY
' NOMSDADS SaudaqyNINay “py

TABLE
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE TERMITE SPECIES SO FAR RECORDED FROM THE ASSAM REGION

+ Present ; — Absent S
——T= = sk Ts a ||
Distribution 3
5 =
=| nn
ont S
sez) s | 3 | ; 3 ;
S38] 3 3 s & c
agel & 29 3
Sel oom 84 8 oO 3 S
goa| 22 | a8 es e| § =
; SAP Be 374 |g 3 hy 3 =z Remacks &
Species S23] $8 | Saf (S| eg! 2 q 2 B Ss
eis] 22 | sui j3le| 2 | 8 | 3) &
8 a S38 3,2 |o|a fc 1e) a 3 >
eee] ae | Boe 2 ra & <
MSs) BR | oo 3 8 5
B°:5| § ope Fa S
<5 a 71 A 2
guB| 8 é =
< B 3
fe
_ Kavoren a
RMITID. 3
get oe wil | | _ Indo- The typical subspecies, N.m. ~
Eee eae | | | Malayan megaoculatus Roonwal & g
dake bona Ke: | | | | Sen-Sarma, occurs in the 4
See | | | foothills of the western &
| | | Himalayas, at Dehra Dun 1
c | | (U.P., India) x
Indo- ee
bengalensis| + | — ats a | S
- Shee te 2 C. have | ((W. Bengal] | | Malayan =
eee | Pakistan) | | 3
Fam. II. Se m | ; vedios 3
3. Reticulitermes chinensis t ee Manesn
Snyder (syn. R. assamen- | Oras) (Also Palae-
sis Gardner) Aes

4. Reticulitermes saraswati || + , _ { — | Indo-
Roonwal & Chhotani | | Malayan
5. Coptotermes gestroi|| + — — —|}+ = _— — Indo-

Wasmann | | Malayan N
6. Coptotermes heimi (Was- + + + = |= v —_ + Indo- Widely distributed in all- s
mann) (syn. C. parvulus! (India ; (Middle 6 Malayan India and W. Pakistan. &
Holmgren) Wee | Java— Pakis- Probably also in middle ©
Pakistan) needs tan) Java (Indonesia)—needs ©
i | confirma- confirmation. ie
| tion) I
H z
7. Coptotermes travians'| | + aie + = || ar oF _— _— Indo- Apparently an eastern spe- ‘“
Haviland | (Puri, (Ww. : (Malaya ; Malayan cies—east of Puri (Orissa), °
: | Orissa) | Bengal ; Indo- long. c. 85°E. yy
| E. nesia) yy
Pakistan) bs
i )
8. Parrhinotermes khasii | + | — _— Indo- The genus Parrhinotermesis
Roonwal & Sen-Sarma | Malayan largely Indo-Malayan (5 5
species: India, Malaya, &

A Indonesia), with one Aus-
tralian species. The record ©
by Roonwal & Sen-Sarma ™
(1956) is the first record of &
the genus from India. 2
Fam. II. Termiripag . =
9. Anoplotermes shillongen-| + | — — —|— _ — — Indo- The record of Roonwal & by
sis Roonwal & Chhotani Malayan Chhotani (1959 ; and 1960, &
| ‘| 1962a, c) is the first record
| of the genus Anoplotermes 3
| from India. The genusis >

largely neotropical (South

America and __ Central

ean America) and Ethiopian
| (Africa). re
s

aeecumaiaies Fo ie ae RE ee Ie tae nF

ee | oe | | | | (sayeig
res ‘| o10Shfq
\ Be = | : 9
= uvARleY : ‘| Seryyser}| ; a
- -Opu] | | ‘| -BYeyAy) UUPUISE AA
q ea — A, ie ete as + | Muaay Sautdajodav041 “TI
S | uekeyeyy | | | | ! (enyse1 xe
: | -opuy ‘|: LI [ueuserew -eyey) (aueseA\) sdao
MS : ype | — || a, le =e + +--+ | -Mpsonb saudajuoyuks § *{{
BY ;
al (ewung | ne se
O pue fuojheg ‘< vIpur-lre) |
° ueAe]e-OPul AjoIUS o1e |
. (97-91 “dd “O96T eUIeS-Ues © .
BE 9 [eMUOOY apia) soieds | ! 1uej0yyyD
= -qns SNorIeA s}i pue uueW | UBALleY eh tae | | 3? yeMuooY sisuassuos
“SEM sdojaco "§ soroods ou L. -Opuy —_— — | — 9 f—]— oe — / + .| sdojado Sauddajynzads “OT
NI J ae | bs
Re | 4
: | | ez) ow ae
as eS 2 B. |e >s
ms N 4 Ore Bese
> R tm - eSe | SB lgBe
a ® $ 2) 5 2) 9 | moe] Op ieee
a . 5 z E. Be rica te 1 OE el eee alors 7 :
S syiewmoy s. o ee Ss 5, 8 = &S +s P o> ~ 'saioedg
2 : ee . = ae, AG es | :
rea iki | pe 5S =) 6 ~s mJ 5
~n | S. A< QB. wp
S s | 8 Se eee
=F o. } Q = ls
Re a | SES
na
5 E ei 5 start ted Bee oak Seca EN YO ae CL cee bs
Bs uonnquisiq

aT Se
)
(panu1ju0D)—aTAV 1, |

28.

ZOOGEOGRAPHY OF TERMITES OF ASSAM REGION

tear WO SI ‘urs uI[OH

snyIDUsYD] snyjoUusyv]

") ‘sorsedsqns jeoidA, oy]

URAL eI
-opuy

ueAPl ey
~opuy

UvART RIT
-Opu]

ueceeyy
~opuy

uedkeleyyy
-Opuy

uedeleyy
~opuy

uvceleyy
-opuy

UPvALleyy
-Opuy

uvdryeyy
-Opu]

uvAETeIy
-Opu]

(Tesuog “AA
-‘an) -

(2181¢

S1OSATA)|

(21818
eiysel

-eqeyA)) |

-(uuvulse AA)

1 usoy Sauda] OJjUOPO

| | juRJoUYD 2 [eMuUCOYy

SISUAINS SsaudsaJoJUopE
['
see UdISWOH,
P uUussWwlOoxY snjyjna
paunoanny Saultaj0juopO
iF (uueUse A)
avaf sautdajojuopEO

_ UaIBW[OH sis
-UAWUDSSD SalllsajoJuopE

| rueioyyo » [eMuUooY,
pian{oyy

ruejoyyO
29 [ePMUO0OYy DsAnp
SnYIDUSIID] Sauldajiidoy

_ puLreg-uag » [eMuooy,
Sisuaunp Saulsaj1ddD)

; rue}

| -oyyD 32 [eMUuCOY 10p
| -py1f SausdafiAdvz0pnasd

SAULIAJOAID]JL -

"CC

“Te

“ST
WA)

“OT

“ST

TaBLE—(Continued)
\

Distribution Ss
$$ - | S
4 2
Ree ea. yt res 3 eI
pags ie | 5 Es x
Awe Zz ee) "bo | | na Bw
BEE| go | 38s 2 | 3 ’
Fos 83 Sarg m4 o 2 &
F Bel ae Gs g 3 5 4 Ss
Species aiq| s2 Sa o;¢ = s 12 a Remarks 2
Sane: ory =|E g g s S
ase] Sm | say | @| 8 2 a FE bb 3
boas ea 34 O!]ma 6 1°) pa 9 s
by ao] se sos aay [eat a x
% s &, 2 =} S Oo IS) } >
Bg >o| 8 a) = a N =
<5) 3 ra A S
We}, 2 9
g |) ™ m4 5
—— a ny
4 ia)
10. Speculitermes cyclops|' + | { Indo- The species S. cyclops Was- ty
rongrensis Roonwal & | Malayan mann and its various sub- >
Chhotani | species (vide Roonwal & ‘I
| | Sen-Sarma 1960, pp. 16-26) ~
| are entirely Indo-Malayan S
| (all-India; Ceylon; and of
} | Burma) sy
q
11. Synhamitermes quardri- | + + or | | | ! ss
ceps (Wasmann) (Maha- |(Rajasthan) | | Indo- | =|
trashtra) ia | | Malayan | °
| | =
12. Microcerotermes heimi| + lp t | | RS
Wasmann (Maha- |, | | |. Indo- a
rashtra, |! | Malayan S
& | |
Mysore | } fe
States) | |

13. Pseudocapritermes _tika- {| ok Indo-
dari Roonwal & Chho- | Malayan
tani {|
14. Capritermes dunensis +} = + | _ Indo-
Roonwal & Sen-Sarma (Dehra \ Malayan N
H Dun, iS
| UP.) Q
15. Capritermes latignathus | + - Indo- The typical subspecies, C. ©
durga Roonwal & | Malayan latignathus latignathus Q
Chhotani | | | Holmgren, is from Java. ie
| ia]
16. -Macrotermes _ khajuriai | + | 3 Indo- a
Roonwal & Chhotani | Malayan S
17. Odontotermes assamen- t Indo- S|
sis Holmgren Malayan 4
oI
18. Odontotermes feae| +- + at t Indo- 2
(Wasmann) | (Maha- | (Bengal) Malayan ES
| Trashtra =)
| State) g
19. Odontotermes flavoma-\\ + — — Indo-
culatus Holmgren & | Malayan S
Holmgren | | ™
hh
20. Odontotermes giriensis | +- — | — —|— — — — Indo- A
Roonwal & Chhotani | ] Malayan =
21. Odontotermes horai t | ~ Indo- z
Roonwal & Chhotani | | | ' Malayan Q
| | | S
22. Odontotermes horni} + + + | + | Indo-
(Wasmann) (Mysore } » (U.P. ; Malayan :
vy State) {W. Bengal) |
ins
oO

e—eeeoo ere — — ——

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

(jeSuog *q) : (WUBUISe A)

oA -opuy <2 =a oe =
ueceleyy .
ne -Opuy ae oe =< == fice AL a

uBceyeyy
aS — | + | syiusajouax sausajodayy
(wueuse AA)
+ Sdaa1anosqo sautdajodayyT
uvdeleyy BUIVS-U9g 2 [PMUOOY
-opuf — — — —|— — — + | 18untadsuou sautsajodcy
"(jesueg “q) ur}

“siyed “q pue ‘(qefang *M)
uvystyeg “A ‘(e10shy ‘quel
“ung ‘[esuog “AA ‘uressy) uvALeYy

UdISWOF] 3 uoISWTOP
wIpUy Ur pamnquasrp AjoprA | -opuy

suapiAdpd sattdajojuopE

uvArle TuvjOYYD 32 [eMucoy
-Opu] cee a ae a — — + | ~undovy SauLdajoJuOpE
‘i ee
iea|
P°) | a oO ares’:
© Ses B) ig >
e) ae =a e) Dn 4
9 ° AE i Se © <7
09 ry p= on zy 2 oO
o 22 ROS & 3 oo
ao & ‘e) Lan | c fq’) tm: mao be | ore} >s \e)
o =. 2h 8 5 < hy 2 =e - gS
Lo} j= | (oe) ae) rare pedo peo we
syiewsy 3. @ © st 5 2 s OB as [Po > so1edg
=, 7m Zao tt Ge teas
eo 250 o |e 3
WM 1S Pac ; 0 w
= 3 oO 9 eis
S Oo. ‘ oo
~n
UORNIMsSIg |

(panuljuoj—aTavy) |

ZOOGEOGRAPHY OF TERMITES OF ASSAM REGION

uvdArleyy
-Opuy

uvALTeyy
~opuy
UvARTeIAL
—~opuy
uvkeyeyy
“opu]
UuBARTeYI
~opuy

uvdceleyy
-Opu]

UvALT RIT
-opuy

(paing |

-11)sIp

A[OpIA\)
+

“hb

(Iu)seAqIS)
SNIDAOUL SaULtajtgNSON

1uvyoyYyD wW [eM
-U0OY YOY sautsajljnsony

TuejoyyD 2? [eMuoOYy
SISUJOLDS §Salda]1JNSON

tuejoyYyD 2 [eMuooYy
SIsuavsdayD Sautsaj1gnsoN

TUvjOuYD 2 [PMUOCOY
IDSUN SOULAAJOADL]JN

TUv}OYYD Ww [eMUCOYy
SIsuajDYdU SauLsajoA1 Jy

(uor3unf OF] 1saqo

"WW URS) usIZWOH
1pubUun SOULIAJ OAD

“6C

“82

(TABLE—Continued)

Dm
cae 5 3 wo
Bog] 2 g ei
Aga) 2 Sc rt a
Ee B 3 — | 88s zg =
2 ae s
. E=| A = ion els 3 3 g a
Species <=8 3s ERE S| rt a 2 om Remarks
Bea] ao | soe | ele] 2 6 A &
2.2 ui o|a 6 1°) 3 roy
ae) EZ ESS ia] oO
asgeal s6 ao ps faa] 2
as 3 33 eos 6 o
ta) 2 ops 3 8
E<3| 3 2" g N
$ue| 5 g 4
Au [4
< 2 8
23. Odontotermes _ kapuri + Indo-
Roonwal & Chhotani Malayan
24. Odontotermes _parvidens Te Indo- Widely distributed in India
Holmgren & Holmgren Malayan Casa, eta
jab, Mysore), W. Pakistan
(W. Punjab), and E, Pakis-
| tan (E. Bengal).
25. Hypotermes nongpriangi Indo-
Roonwal & Sen-Sarma Malayan
26. Hypotermes obscuriceps Indo-
(Wasmann) Malayan
27. Hypotermes xenotermitis _ Indo- 5
(Wasmann) Malayan

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

Microtermes anandi

Holmgren (syn. M. |

obesi Holmgren) |
: |
Microtermes imphalensis |

Roonwal & Chhotani
|

Microtermes umsae
Roonwal & Chhotani

Nasutitermes cherraensis
Roonwal & Chhotani

Nasutitermes _ garoensis
Roonwal & Chhotani

Nasutitermes kali Roon-
wal & Chhotani

Nasutitermes moratus
(Silvestri)

+
(widely

distri-
buted)

Indo-
Malayan

0€

(1) 7 ‘190A ‘AIFIDOS “ISIH T¥YNI¥N AVEWOd "IFNUNOL

NOIDA W¥SSY AO SALINUAL AO AHd¥YODOTIOOZ

f€

The Vegetation of
Manori and Madh Islands in Bombay

Y. D. PRADHAN AND Y. SATYANARAYAN?
Institute of Science, Bombay

INTRODUCTION

There are several small islands around Bombay City most of which
are sparsely populated. Ina preliminary study, these islands were classi-
fied into (a) creek or river islands and (b) coastal islands (Pradhan, Y. D.
1957). Inthe former, the waters surrounding the islands are non-saline
or have very low salinity during the monsoon but are decidedly saline
during the post-monsoon and summer seasons. The waters around the
coastal islands exhibit practically no variations in salinity or pH through-
out the year, as they are surrounded by sea-water. Salinity is the princi-
pal factor influencing the distribution and zonation of mangroves around
these islands (Satyanarayan, in the press).

In general, the vegetation on these islands can be distinguished into :
(a) salt marsh, (6) coastal—strand, salt spray, or littoral dune, and (c)
inland vegetation, each characterized by distinct edaphic factors, re-
sulting in halophytic, psammophytic, and glycophytic types. A brief
account of the vegetation of Madh and Manori Islands is given in this
paper.

Madh Island is situated off the all vile of Versova on the
west coast of Salsette Island, 19 km. north of Bombay. It is approachable
from the city by train up to Andheri and then by bus and boat. Recently,
it has been connected with Salsette Island. There is a small fort at the
- southern edge of Madh Island and the sandy beach on the western side
is a fine picnic resort. Manori Island is roughly triangular in outline and
is situated opposite the Marve beach of Salsette Island. It is about
8 km. from Borivli station. A ferry service links up the island with
Malad on the Western Railway. The inhabitants on this island are
mostly fishermen. :

1 Communicated by the Director, Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur,
Rajasthan.

2 Present address : Ecologist, Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Govt. of
India, Jodhpur, Rajasthan.

VEGETATION OF MANORI AND MADH ISLANDS IN BOMBAY 33
VEGETATION

a. Madh Island. There are three small villages on Madh Island,
viz. Madh, Davavali, and Erangal. A small stretch of deep sea separates
Madh Island from Manori. Much of the original vegetation on this
irregularly-shaped island has been destroyed and the land has been
brought under cultivation of rice and market crops. The centre of the
island is hilly.

The mangrove vegetation is confined to Malad Creek, i.e. to the
eastern and northern sides of the island. The creek had originally
separated the island from Salsette. Mangroves are abundant in the
creek, near the island, because the creek is not very deep due to accumu-
lation of mud and silt. But due to biotic influences, the mangroves
have assumed a stunted appearance. Avicennia officinalis is the domi-
nant species of the mangroves.

Around the landing jetty, even at the high water level mark, Avicennia
is the only mangrove tree to be seen. A ‘ kutcha’ road leads from the
jetty, which is at the south-east corner of the island, to a temple at the
southern end of the island. On the left side of the road as one proceeds
towards the temple is a salt marsh land dominated by Clerodendrum
inerme, Aeluropus lagopoides, and Sporobolus helvolus. On the right
side is a shallow ditch which is flooded by tidal waters during the greater
portion of the day. This area is dominated by Fimbristylis ferruginea
and Sporobolus glaucifolius.

Two wells are found on either side of the road, near the temple.
Near these wells, the slope of the land increases and becomes rocky and
sandy. This area is free from mangroves but is dominated by halophytic
vegetation such as Sporobolus virginicus, S. helvolus, Paspalidium puncta-
tum, Paspalum vaginatum, Fimbristylis polytrichoides, Lindernia ciliata,
and Sesuvium portulacastrum. Beyond the elevated rocky area, Avicennia
is again seen in the creek. Two distinct zones of vegetation are present :
(a) the mangrove zone of Avicennia and (b) an inner sandy zone of
Cyperus rotundus which covers extensive patches. In depressions, how-
ever, Fimbristylis ferruginea becomes more abundant. Other species
found in this area are Lindernia ciliata, Chloris barbata, Cynodon dactylon,
Launaea sarmentosa, and Sesuvium portulacastrum. Beyond the temple
is a ‘ pucca’ road, and in the low-lying land on either side of the road
there is a dense cover of Kyllinga triceps, Cyperus iria, Cyperus
compressus, and Scirpus maritimus.

The temple itself is on a small knob of hill. At the foot of the hill
the road forks, in the southern direction towards a small fort and the
other towards the bus terminus in the west. The roadside vegetation,
towards the fort side consists chiefly of Pogostemmon parviflorus, Cassia
tora, Celosia argentea, Tephrosia purpurea, Acanthospermum hispidum,

34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

Euphorbia microphylla, E. hirta, Abutilon indicum, Sida acuta, Melochia

corchorifolia, Urena lobata, Vernonia cinerea, Ocimum americanum,

Calotropis gigantea, Sesamum indicum, Commelina benghalensis, Indigo-
fera enneaphylla, Achyranthes aspera, Ischaemum semisagittatum,

Eragrostis unioloides, Eleusine aegyptiaca, and others. Near the fort, the
dominant plant is Hyptis suaveolens.

Near the temple is a small pond and the vegetation around it ciate
chiefly of Asteracantha longifolia, Phyla nodiflora, Euphorbia hyperici-
folia, Ipomoea spp., Ammannia baccifera, and Ludwigia parviflora. Inthe
pond, only two species were observed, viz. Ipomoea aquatica-and Jussiaea
suffruticosa. The hill on which the temple is situated bears a few trees
and shrubs of Mangifera indica, Ficus benghalensis, Acacia arabica,
Carissa congesta, and Jatropha curcas. :

Proceeding from the temple westwards towards Madh village,
the topography is seen to be flat. Malachra capitata is very common and
associated with it are Solanum xanthocarpum, Amaranthus spinosus,
Alternanthera triandra, Abelmoschus manihot, Lantana camara, Pedalium
murex, and Urena lobata, all of which are stated to be nitrophilous plants
(Bharucha 1950). Beyond the village, dense patches of Acanthospermum
hispidum are found growing in uniform patches. On the west of the.
island is a fairly wide beach covered mostly by Ipomoea _ pes-caprae
along with Eragrostis ciliaris, Leucas aspera, and Launaea pinnatifida.
A narrow track which begins near the wells on the eastern side runs
across the hill in the centre and meets the pucca bus road on the west.
On the hill are found Mangifera indica, Zizyphus mauritiana, Acacia
sundra, Anacardium occidentale, Phoenix sylvestris, Annona squamosa,
Ficus benghalensis, Syzygium cumini, and Azadirachta indica. Shrubs of
Cayratia carnosa, Leea macrophylla, Barleria prionitis, and Calycopteris
floribunda are found. At the foot of the hill is a banana grove and around
it are found Gynandropsis pentaphylla, Martynia diandra, Gloriosa superba,
Dioscorea bulbifera, Cayratia carnosa, Aerua lanata, segecable® ae
and Ruellia prostrata.

Northwards towards the jetty, along the creek, oan aitbtids
right up to the reclaimed land. The Avicennia zone is followed by a
zone of Aegiceras corniculatum and Acanthus ilicifolius. This zone in turn
is followed by a zone of Salvadora persica and Clerodendrum inerme,
which is the innermost zone of the mangrove vegetation, in this island.

In the low-lying rice fields the dominant weed is Cressa cretica, while
on elevated ground the more common weed is Sphaeranthus indicus.
Associated with Cressa cretica are Paspalum vaginatum, Marsilea quadri-
fida, Ammannia baccifera, Fimbristylis polytrichoides and Cynodon dacty-
lon. The plants along with Sphaeranthus indicus are Grangea maderas-
patana, Sphaeranthus africanus, Cynodon dactylon, Ludwigia parviflora,
Eragrostis unioloides, Desmodium triflorum, and Setaria ene

ee:

VEGETATION OF MANORI AND MADH ISLANDS IN BOMBAY 35

~ bs Manori Island. Manori island has an irregular and rocky topo-
Pa eliy with a low ledge of basaltic rocks running approximately south
to north. There are four small villages, all situated on the western side
of the island known as Manori, Gorai, Utan and Dongri. Of these,
Dongri is situated at the northern tip of the island, facing the Fort of
Bassein on the mainland. Two large creeks separate Manori from
Salsette. The larger of these creeks runs from Marve northwards to
Mira Road and Mandapeshwar from where it takes a north-easterly
course towards the mainland, joining the Bassein Creek. The mangrove
vegetation occurs only along the creeks on the eastern side but not on the
western side of Manori island. This is due to the fact that the western
shore is quite sandy and is Succ to direct and Powers tidal action from
the Arabian Sea. | :

The chief mangrove species is Avicennia officinalis whieh Nakee its
appearance on the coast between Manori village and Marve on Salsette.
Ayicennia is particularly abundant in the mid-littoral zone near the jetty
at Manori village and extends all along the creek right up to Manda-
peshwar. Off Mira Road, occasional plants of Ceriops candolleana are
found, while Acanthus ilicifolius is abundant in the supra-littoral fringe.
In the most sheltered areas of Manori Creek, Salvadora persica
is. seen with Suaeda Nee and ones SN a in the- ee -littoral
zone.

~ At: the junction of Mantohi Creek with Bassein Creek, where - the
waters are deeper, Rhizophora mucronata is seen growing amidst Avicennia,’

right up to Bassein Bridge:--At the outskirts of Bassein Fort, on
the mainland, the beaches are: ‘regularly bathed by tides and dense patches.
of Arthrocnemum ee ate® occur, occasionally uulerspersed with Aeluropus
lagopoides. |

Near the jetty at Matos. and extending almost up to Manion
village are Clerodendrum inerme and Cyperus rotundus. A ‘ kutcha’:
road runs almost parallel to this halophytic zone. On the left hand side
of the road, as one proceeds towards the village, the ground is dominated’
entirely by Acanthospermum hispidum, Indigofera cordifolia, and
Desmodium triflorum.: As the road curves westwards, small. sand
hummocks are seen, bearing Sporobolus virginicus, Paspalidium puncta-
tum, Cynodon dactylon, and Fimbristylis polythricoides. _Arthrocnemum
indicum and Salicornia brachiata are dominant on the strand. On the
western side of the island, the kutcha road passes over a small lagoon, on
the banks of which Aeluropus lagopoides and Suaeda fruticosa are found.
Along the left side of the road are rice fields.

In the crevices of the rocky--cliffs only two species are found, viz.
Lindenbergia urticaefolia and Apluda mutica. Rarely, a few plants of
Ischaemum rugosum are also found. - The rocks ‘were found to contain
10 to 15 per cent. calcium carbonate.» ~~ ie i EO EUETON

36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

Further inland, Acanthospermum is replaced by a community of
Cassia tora. Other nitrophilous plants are Solanum xanthocarpum and
Xanthium strumarium. On the northern side of the island are grazing
lands in a deteriorated condition. The kutcha road ends near Manori
village, around which are many rice fields. Dominant weeds in the rice
fields are Cressa cretica associated with Sida veronicaefolia, Lindernia
ciliata, Cyanotis axillaris, Eleusine indica, Ammannia baccifera, Blepharis
molluginifolia, Vernonia cinerea, Blumea eriantha, Panicum psilopodium,
Eclipta prostrata, and Euphorbia hirta. From the floristic composition,
it is clear that these weeds are generally characteristic of saline conditions.

As mentioned earlier, the western aspect of the island is devoid of
mangroves but on the sandy beaches Spinifex littoreus is dominant to-
gether with Eragrostis ciliaris generally in areas where the rock outcrop
is covered with a thin mantle of soil. But, where the soil mantle is deep,
Ipomoea pes-caprae dominates along with Borreria hispida, Launaea
sarmentosa, and Phyla nodiflora. Further north, the carpet vegetation
is replaced by a tall, luxuriant zone of Pandanus tectorius. Behind the
Pandanus zone is a large coconut grove and the common species in the
grove are Indigofera cordifolia and Desmodium triflorum.

If one proceeds towards the left of the jetty, Acanthospermum hispidum

is seen to be the dominant plant. The sandy beaches are dominated by -

Cyperus rotundus along with Spinifex littoreus. Beyond the Acanthos-
permum zone is a fairly extensive grazing land but covered mostly by
over-grazed species like Eragrostis unioloides. Other species found in
these grazing lands are Curculigo orchioides, Commelina nudiflora, Phyl-
lanthus niruri, Euphorbia hirta, Melothria maderaspatana, Rhamphicarpa
longifolia, Evolvulus alsinoides, Lindernia ciliata, Indigofera cordifolia,

and Urginea indica, all of which are seasonal species of the monsoon. At —

places where over-grazing is not severe, the grazing lands are dominated
by taller species like Heteropogon contortus, Paspalidium flavidum, Ischae-
mum ciliare, and Ischaemum rugosum. Bushes of Holarrhena antidysen-
terica and Calycopteris floribunda are also commonly seen further inland.

Occasionally, Celosia argentea is found in small patches beyond the

grazing lands as one approaches the rice fields. The dominant weed of

the rice fields is Cressa cretica and associated species are Sida veroni-
caefolia, Lindernia ciliata, Caesulia axillaris, Eleusine indica, Ammannia
baccifera, Blepharis molluginifolia, Vernonia cinerea, Blumea eriantha,
Panicum psilopodium, Eclipta prostrata, and Euphorbia hirta.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The senior author wishes to place on record his gratitude to the
Government of Nepal and the Colombo Plan authorities in India for the

VEGETATION OF MANORI AND MADH ISLANDS IN BOMBAY — 37

award of a fellowship, during the tenure of which these studies were

carried out.

REFERENCES

BHARUCHA, F. R. (1950): The Vege-
tation of Bombay and its Environs. J.
Gujerat Res. Soc. 9 : 12.

PRADHAN, Y. D. (1957): Phyto-
sociological and ecological studies of
the island flora of Bombay. M.Sc.
Thesis, Univ. Bombay.

SATYANARAYAN, Y. (1958) : Ecological
Studies of Bombay coast-lines. I.
Strand vegetation. J. biol. Sci. 1: 53-65.
—: ditto. 2. Mangrove.
ibid. (in the press).

———

vegetation.

Copepods parasitic on South Indian
_ Eishes: Family Bomolochidae—3

ee,

No 'KRISHNA“PILLATi Geran ia ‘euit- Bac 3A
Marine Biological Laboratory. Trivandrum, Kerala State ~° ~~

(With eight text-figures)

[Continued from Vol. 61 (1) : 59]

The present paper describes eight species of Bomolochus, four of
which are new. In a previous publication (Pillai 1962) I described
a new species, B. aculeatus, closely resembling B. leptoscari Yamaguti
(1953) and Orbitacolax uniunguis Shen (1957), and also expressed the
opinion that Orbitacolax cannot be considered as distinct from
Bomolochus. While describing’ B. aculeatus Pillai, I overlooked its
close similarity to Taeniacanthus hapalogenyos Yamaguti & Yamasu
(1959). The position of_the maxilliped with respect to the other
mouth parts easily distinguishes bomolochids from taeniacanthids.
Yet an experienced worker like Yamaguti erred in placing the above-
mentioned species under Taeniacanthidae. It is likely that B. aculeatus
is the same as B. hapalogenyos (Yamaguti & Yamasu).

Wilson (1911), Yamaguti (1939), and Shen (1957) attempted a
division of Bomolochus into genera or subgenera. As shown by
Stock (1953) this division is quite unnatural and the above-mentioned
authors themselves contradicted their own observations. In the
present study this division is not followed.

Wilson (1911) observed that in Bomolochidae the male is free-
living and that mating takes place before the female seeks out a host.
Gnanamuthu (1947) and Stock (1953) showed that this is not so.
During the course of the present investigation I have been able to
collect the males of three species of Bomolochus in good numbers and
some of them were actually observed in copulation. It is true that the
males of a vast majority of species are unknown, but this is not because
they are free-living. The male is invariably small and nearly
transparent and hence easily overlooked, Flushing the opercular

[31]

COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES—3 39

chamber with water and examining the residue under a Dmocilat
ee ore was. always found highly rewarding. 3

- During the present investigation the detailed structure of the spines
arming legs two to four has been found to constitute a very useful
diagnostic character. The second antenna of Bomolochus has often
been described as two-, three-, or even four-segmented. In all the species
I have been able to examine this appendage is three-segmented.
What is described as the fourth segment is a linguiform prolongation
of the third segment. Similarly the fifth leg has been occasionally
described as three-segmented, but it consists of only two segments.

Bomolochids are extremely common but only four species, B.
megaceros Heller (i865), B. triceros Bassett-Smith (1898a), B.
nultispinosus Gnanamuthu (1947), and B. acutus Gnanamuthu (1948)
have so far been described from this region.

Genus Bomolochus Nordmann

Bomolochus triceros Bassett-Smith

Bomolochus triceros Bassett-Smith, 1898a, p. 2, pl. 1, f. 1. ? Bomolochus mana-
gatuwo Yamaguti, 1939, pl. 3, figs. 28-29, pl. 4. figs. 30-37.

Text-fig. 15.

Material. 3 females were collected by ‘the author from the
inner surface of the opercle of Pampus argenteus (Euphrasen) at
Trivandrum.

Female. Carapace much broader than long, its antero-median
part deeply incised, and posterior border nearly straight. Second
thoracic segment posteriorly concave, third segment narrower than
second and overlapping the fourth segment, latter short, less than half
as broad as third segment, fifth segment very small. Genital segment
broader than long, subequal to the first abdominal segment. Abdomen
long and four-segmented. Anal laminae longer than broad, with a
long distal seta and three smaller setae.

First antenna indistinctly seven-segmented, first ‘four segments stout
and partially fused, last three segments slender, second segment with
a short but broad ‘process carrying three stout but subequal spines,
middle spine chitinised and:-blunt, others rugose and apically drawn
out,’ second and third segments carrying five modified setae, first seta
very long and placed close to ‘the spines. Distal segment of second
-antenna with .well-spaced: tubercles. and. produced into a linguiform
process, - its. distal border. with seven claws. anda toothed blunt process.

(321

40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

Mandibular blades subsimilar, spiny along the lower border.
maxilla with four plumose setae, two of them large. Blades of second
maxilla long and pointed, with barbed edges. Maxilliped with very
long claw and three pectinate setae, claw without accessory process.

First

w
a
@
2e-
Q
Soetaneta ie
’ z nf
Ja eeoe: r
Ce, or a8
cae b

LYK
ta0%

yeas
AQ

eg
«4
D i
rx
{?
ee

ee e2@ ~e%e<
eeatee o%e0e,
vecaere tees
ratavertvee te
Tar

eaoete'
@
(T )

7
(ty ase,
we

Fig. 15. Bomolochus triceros Bassett-Smith. Female: A. dorsal view;
B. antenna 1; C. antenna2; D. mandible; E. maxillal; F. maxilla 2;
G. maxilliped; H.leg 1; I. same, exopod; J. leg2; K. same, exopod ;
L. same, tip of endopod; M.leg3; N. leg 4; O. leg 5

First leg with three-segmented rami. Exopod of second leg with
five strong, barbed spines, each with a trigger-like apical spinule, sixth
[33]

COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES—3 41

spine broad and blunt, with an outer flange and pectinate subapical
spinule, endopod only slightly broader than exopod, distal segment
with two identical short spines, with thin flange and an apical spinule.
Exopod of third leg slightly broader than endopod, with five similar
spines. Endopod of fourth leg very slender, first two segments with
an outer long pectinate seta, third segment with one very long and
two short pectinate spines. Distal segment of fifth leg with four spines
and three groups of spinules. Egg sacs cylindrical, reaching the tip
of the caudal setae. |
Total length 2.2 mm.

Remarks. There are certain minor mistakes in the description
of this species by Bassett-Smith. He described the second antenna as
two-segmented, but it is, as usual, three-segmented and the distal
segment carries seven and net four claws. The maxilliped has three
setae, and not one as stated by Bassett-Smith. The rami of the first
leg are three- and not two-segmented.

Bomolochus (Pseudobomolochus) managatuwo Yamaguti (1939) is
so much like the present species even in minute details that I am
almost sure that they are identical. Both are parasites of Pampus
argenteus.

Bomolochus denticulatus Bassett-Smith

Bomolochus denticulatus Bassett-Smith, 1898b, p. 77, pl. 3, f. 1.
Text-fig. 16.

Material. 28 females and 3 males were collected by the author
from the inner surface of the opercle of Sphyraena jello Cuvier at
Trivandrum. |

Female. Carapace nearly semicircular, second thoracic segment
only slightly narrower than carapace, its hind border slightly concave,
third segment roughly equal in length and breadth, completely over-
lapping the fourth segment, fifth segment much broader than long,
partially covered by the third segment. Genital segment slightly
narrower than fifth segment. Abdomen three-segmented, anal laminae
with one long and four short setae.

Basal segments of first antenna completely fused, with a large
process carrying three comparatively short processes, middle process
longer and chitinised, others pointed and rugose, modified setae four,
one of them very short. Distal segment of second antenna sparsely

: : [34]

Peep te

42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

spiny, with six claws and a toothed process. Mandible and second
maxillae as usual in the genus, first maxilla with three setae, its inner
process hairy. Claw of maxilliped without accessory process, a minute
‘knob is occasionally present.

Ons

=e 5 ;
NS op a)
[re a

>
ere
ote
re
\ 566

KS (

~ Ye
OOH WS
PE efse:
Cor2iagiee
Be eese \Seg
Reseel | foie,
a | Ge
(cou ceMmla.
aa i
feces (Ce
oscommane
eer) RS
e)

- Fig. 16. Bomolochus denticulatus Bassett-Smith. A-P. Female: A. dorsal . |
view ;-B. antenna 1 ;-C. same, spinous processes ; D. antenna 2; E. mandible - |
and maxillae ; F. leg 1-;-G. exopod; H. leg 2; I. exopod; J. tip of endopod; - |
_K. leg 3; L. tip of endopod; M. spine on exopod; N. leg 4; O. tip of -

endopod ; P. leg 5. Q-S. Male: Q. dorsal view; R. maxilliped; S. leg5_. ©

Rami of first leg very much flattened, three-segmented, first two
‘endopod segments pustulose: Endopod of second leg - flattened, - third
segment with two stout but short-winged~- spines, exopod with - Six
spines, first five with five to six teeth ‘on the outer border and: -a

135]

COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN: FISHES—3 43

pectinate apical spinule, sixth spine apically blunt and - externally
pectinate. Third leg with subsimilar rami, spines on third . endopod
segment barbed, exopod similar to that of second leg. Endopod of
fourth leg slender, with two short outer pectinate spines, third segment
with two short and one very long pectinate spines. Fifth leg com-
paratively narrow, distal segment with three pectinate spines and a
long spine seta. Egg sacs stout and cylindrical, as long as the body.
Total length 2.6 mm. |

Male. Body slender, carapace nearly circular, with very pro-
minent rostral process. Thoracic segments two to four steadily
decreasing in length and breadth, fifth segment short, completely free.
Genital segment pyriform and large, abdomen three-segmented, with
parallel sides. Second and third segments of maxilliped with
tuberculate inner border, each with a spine seta. Fifth leg slender,
distal segment with long spines and a patch of spinules.

Total length 1.3 mm.

Remarks. As observed by Bassett-Smith this species can be
easily distinguished by the shape of the prominent frontal processes
on the first antenna, denticulated claws of the legs and the extremely
enlarged third segment of the trunk. Bassett-Smith described the
processes on the first antennae as very short, obtuse-ended bristles
of about equal length. But the middle spine alone is obtuse-ended,
the others are apically drawn out as usual. Generally these processes
remain bent and their true shape will be visible only if examined under
a cover glass.

Bomolochus megaceros Heller

Bomolochus megaceros Heller, 1865, p. 153, pl. 13, f. 2.
Text-fig. 17

Material. Several females and males were collected by the
author: from the gills and inner.surface of the opercle of Par astr omateus
niger (Bloch) at Trivandrum. ~

_.Fematle. Carapace nearly twice as Beoad: as long, frontal
“incision. shallow and. broad. Second thoracic segment slightly narrower
than carapace, third segment as long as second but narrower, fourth
Segment - transversely ovate and as long as - third segment. Fifth
. segment transversely _ -rectangular,.. - slightly narrower than fourth.

[30]

Ad JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

Genital segment longer and broader than fifth, abdomen short, three-

segmented. Anal Jaminae with two long distal setae and three or
four smaller ones.

ey a bees “a
: one Wa re
TSN DIO Sere watcs i :
\ 3, Siemens, ‘oh ne F Peer, Sd
Bf

CJ
OOe,
a2

eve

@O_)
COO

Fig. 17. Bomolochus megaceros Heller. A-M. Female: A. dorsal view;
B. antenna 2; C. mandible and maxillae; D. maxilliped; E. leg 1;
F. leg 2; G.exopod; H. tip of endopod; I. leg3; J. tip of endopod:
K. leg 4; L. tip of endopod; M. legs 5 and 6; N-P. Male: N. dorsal -

view; O. maxilliped; P. leg 5
First antenna with a prominent strongly curved chitinised process
and a long and a short modified seta. Third segment of second
antenna with longitudinal rows of spines, distal border with six claws
and a blunt spiny process. Blades of mandible rather long and spiny.

First maxilla with four setae, one of them very small, inner process
[ 37]

a iene ay

ge ba

COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES—3 45

hairy. Second maxilla with broad barbed blades. Claws of maxilliped
strongly curved, with a prominent sharp accessory process.

Exopod of first leg as broad as endopod and _ two-segmented.
Exopod of second leg pustulose, first spine winged, second to fifth
toothed on both sides, sixth winged on one side, all the spines with a
subapical spinule, endopod very broad, third segment with two winged
triggered spines. Exopod of third leg pustulose, spines barbed
only on one side, third segment of endopod with two long pectinate ©
spines. Exopod of fourth leg similar to that of: third, endopod
slender, with two pectinate outer spines and three distal spines,
median distal spine very long. Fifth leg with a long simple spine seta
and three pectinate spines on second segment. Sixth leg formed of
three setae. Egg sacs large, with Bey eggs.

Total length 2.9 mm.

Male. Carapace nearly equal in length and breadth, with a
short but broad rostrum. Trunk segments regularly narrowing, fifth
segment broader than fourth. Genital segment longer than broad,
broader behind. Abdomen three-segmented. Distal segment of fifth
leg long and slender, with two short spines. Inner part of second
segment of maxilliped with several rows of pustules, inner border of
distal segment with a closely packed row of tubercles. :

Total length 1.3 mm.

Remarks. Heller’s figure of the entire animal is far from correct
and in the illustrations of the appendages he has omitted practically
all details. Nevertheless the identity of the present material is very
clear.

Bomolochus multispinosus Gnanamuthu

Bomolochus multispinosa Gnanamuthu, 1947, p. 309, figs. 1-5.
Text-fig. 18

Material. 3 females were collected by the author from the
inner surface of the opercle of Dussumieria hasselti Bleeker at
Trivandrum.

Female. Carapace nearly one and a half times as broad as long,
slightly concave posteriorly, frontal sinus deep. Second thoracic
segment transversely rectangular, third transversely ovate and partially
overlapping the fourth segment, latter very narrow, fifth segment stiil
Narrower. Genital segment broader than fifth segment. Abdomen

[ 38]

46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

three-segmented, narrowing backwards. Anal laminae 24 times as long
as broad, with a very long distal seta. re

First antenna with a stout basal part carrying three large chitinised
processes, middle process slightly longer than the others, modified
setae four, first placed close to the third process. Distal segment: of
second antenna sparsely spiny, with a ‘spinous process, four
claws, and two spine setae. Mandible with two smooth blades, lower

Fig. 18. Bomoluchus multispinosus Gnanamuthu. Female: A. dorsal view ;

B. antenna 1; C.antenna2;. D. mandible and maxillae; E. mandible; -F.
_,maxilla2; G.maxilliped; H.leg1; I.exopod; J.leg2; K-L. spines on
exopod; M.tipofendopod; N.leg3; O.leg 4; P.leg5. : pis:

blade smaller. - First maxilla with one small and three large setae
Second maxilla with a slender spine and two long barbed blades.
Claw of maxilliped moderately curved, without accessory process.

[39]

COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN: FISHES—3 47

Rami of first leg three-segmented, exopod nearly as broad as
endopod. Exopod of second leg with six spines, first five with forked
tip carrying a spinule, last spine with a frilled external flange, endopod
only very slightly broader than exopod, its distal segment with two
blunt ovate spines with thin bordér. Third leg smaller than second.
Fourth Jeg smaller than third, rami very slender, endopod with two
outer pectinate spines and three distal spines, middle distal spine very
long. Distal segment of fifth leg with a long spine seta and three
pectinate spines.

Total length 2.3 mm.

Remarks. As Gnanamuthu has given only simple illustrations
the more obvious differences alone could be pointed out. The first
maxilla has four setae and the second maxilla a slender spine in
addition to the two blades. The maxilliped carries three instead of
two setae. The terminal segment of the endopod of the first leg
carries five and not six setae. Gnanamuthu described legs two to four
as similar, but they show clear differences in size as well as in armature.
He has described the exopods of the legs as four-segmented, but the
strong constriction on the distal segment does not appear to indicate
a fourth segment.

B. multispinosus has the closest resemblance to B. triceros Bassett-
Smith but in the latter only the middle process of the first antenna is
chitinised, In the structure of the spines on the legs also they differ.

eee -Bomolochus selaroides sp.nov. ~~
Text-fig. 19

Material. 5 females were collected by the author from the
inner surface of the opercle of Selaroides leptolepis (Cuvier). at
Trivandrum. Holotype, female, is deposited in the Indian Museum,

Calcutta (Reg. No: C4613/1). se Pee ae

Female. Carapace broader than long, sith a broad prominent
frontal incision and a pair of shallow lateral ones. Second trunk
Segment narrower than carapace, its hind border concave. Third
Segment transversely ovate, as long as second but narrower, fourth
segment transversely oblong, fifth segment very small. Genital segment
large, twice as long as fifth segment but much broader. Abdomen
very short, three-segmented. Anal laminae slightly longer than broad.
Ege sacs long and elliptical. |

First antenna -six-segmented, first {fies esenicars stout and
Baaally fused, with a strong apically recurved chitinised process,

[40]

48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

fourteen stout plumose setae and three modified setae, middle modified
seta very long. Distal segment of second antenna with longitudinal
rows of spines, margin with long closely packed blunt teeth, distal
border with a blunt toothed process and a bunch of five claws.
Mandible with two blades, upper blade large, curved, and spiny, lower

ly 7

Fig. 19. Bomolochus selaroides sp. nov. Female: A. dorsal view; B. antenna | ;
C. base enlarged; D. antenna2; EE. mandible and maxillae; F. maxilliped ;
G.leg 1; H. leg2; I-K. spineson exopod; L.tip of endopod; M. leg3,
N. leg 4; O.legs5 and 6; P. tip of abdomen

much smaller. First maxilla with four plumose setae, second maxilla
with two unequal barbed blades. Claw of maxilliped with a prominent,

curved, and acute accessory process.
i 41]

ae res

COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES—3 49

First leg highly flattened, with three-segmented rami, first two
endopod segments pustulose. Exopod of second leg pustulose, first
spine winged, next four not winged, last externally winged, all the
spines with a subapical pectinate spiule; endopod very broad, with
two short winged spines, each with an apical spinule. Third leg with
prominently pustulose exopod, spines externally toothed and with a
subapical spinule, endopod only slightly broader than exopod, spines
on third segment longer than those on second leg. Fourth leg with
comparatively slender rami, both pustulose, exopod spines, similar
to those of third leg, endopod with two outer pectinate spines
and three distal winged spines, middle distal spine moderately long.
Fifth leg prominently spiny, with three pectinate spine sttae and a
slender plumose seta. Sixth leg formed of three simple setae.

Total length 2.1 mm. ~

Remarks. B._ selaroides closely resembles 8B. decapteri
Yamaeuti (1936) even in details. The shape and the armature of the
legs are almost identical, but in B. decapteri the body is more robust
and comparatively short and the egg sacs almost oblong.

Bomolochus hemirhamphi sp. nov.
Text-fig. 20 |

Material. 20 females were collected by the author from the
inner surface of the opercle of Hemirhamphus marginatus Forskal
at Trivandrum. Holotype, female, is deposited in the Indian Museum,
Calcutta (Reg. No. C4614/1).

Female. Body short but stout. Carapace semicircular, with
shallow median and indistinct lateral grooves. Second trunk segment
immersed in carapace, laterally rounded and posteriorly concave.
Third segment transversely oblong, immersed in second segment,
fourth segment fairly large, overlapping fifth segment, fifth segment
as broad as genital segment. Abdomen short, three-segmented. Egg
sacs oblong and short.

First antenna six-segmented, first three segments stout, with
fourteen large plumose setae, a stout curved sickle-shaped spine, and ~
three modified setae. Distal segment of second antenna with longis
tudinal rows of spines, margin with a row of closely packed teeth,
distal border with a spiny process and six claws. Mandible with
broad blades, lower blade much smaller. First maxWla with four
setae. Second maxilla with a small spfe and two long strongly
barbed blades. Claw of maxilliped with prominent accessory process.

[ 42 ]

50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

First leg with moderately flattened three-segmented rami. Exopod
of second leg with six spines, each spine with outer wing and subapical

C-E,H.K,L, N.0,Q,R
0.} ram

Fig. 20. Bomolochus hemirhamphi sp. nov. Female: A. dorsal view; B. antenna
1; C.chitinous process; D.antenna2; E. mandible and maxillae; F. mandi-
ble; G. maxilla 2; H. maxilliped; I. leg 1; J. leg2; K.exopod; L. tip of
endopod; M. leg3; N. tip of endopod; O. exopod; P. leg 4; Q. tip of
endopod; R. leg 5 ;

spinule, endopod broad, with two short blunt spines. Third leg with
subsimilar rami, exopod very slightly broader, with five spines, very

much similar to those on second leg except that the first spine is winged
on both sides and the fifth is much longer. Exopod of fourth leg

[43]

COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES—3 51

exactly like that of third, endopod slender, with two pectinate outer
spine setae and three distal winged spines, median distal spine very
long. Distal segment of fifth leg with three strong, pectinate spines,
each with a patch of spinules at its base and a long sparsely pectinate
spine, basal segment with a seta and a patch of spinules.

Total length 1.8 mm.

Remarks. In the general shape of the body and the structure
of the appendages B. hemirhamphi closely resembles B. deécapteri
- Yamaguti (1936). They agree in the presence of a single spine on
the first antenna, shape of the legs, especially of the first, second, and
fifth pairs, and also in the shape of the egg sacs. But in B. décapteri
the spines on the legs two to four are denticulated and the exopod
segments are pustulose. In B. hemirhamphi the spines are winged and
the exopod segments are not pustulose. B. hemirhamphi also resembles
B. hyporamphi Yamaguti & Yamasu (1959), but in the latter the egg
sacs are elliptical and Yamaguti & Yamasu make no mention of the
armature of the spines on the legs. B. hemirhamphi has a spinule in
addition to the two blades on the second maxilla; according to
Yamaguti & Yamasu this spine is not present in B. hyporamphi. The
present species also resembles B. tumidus Shiino (1957) to some extent.

Bomolochus kanagurta sp. nov.
Text-fig. 21

Material. 18 females and 6 males were collected by the
author from the inner surface of the opercle of Rastrelliger kanagurta
Cuvier at Trivandrum. Holotype, female. and allotype, male, are
deposited in the Indian Museum, Calcutta (Reg. Nos. C4616/1 and
C4617/1).

Female. Body stout and tumid. Carapace with a_ broad
shallow frontal incision and a pair of lateral grooves, its posterior
border nearly straight.. Second trunk segment narrow, its hind border
concave. Third segment transversely ovate, longer than second and
almost completely hiding the fourth segment in dorsal view, fourth
segment overlapping fifth, fifth segment short, slightly broader than
_ first abdominal segment. Abdomen four-segmented, steadily narrow-
ing backwards. Anal laminae twice as long as broad, with a long
stout apical seta. Egg sacs as long as body in front of fourth segment,
Narrowing backwards, eggs large and rounded.

First antenna with a bunch of three spines borne on a chitinous
base and three modified setae successively decreasing in length,
£44)

52h JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (i)

middle spine shorter than the lateral ones and chitinised. Distal
segment of second antenna with longitudinal rows of denticles, distal
border with a spiny process and six claws. Mandible with two curved
subsimilar blades. First maxilla with four setae, two of them large,
inner process spiny and hairy. Distal segment of second maxilla
short, with a large spiny spatulate blade, a narrow strongly barbed

Fig. 21. Bomolochus kanagurta sp. nov. A-Q. Female: A. dorsal view:;
B. antenna 1, base; C. antenna 2; D.mandible; E. mandible, blades enlarged ;
F. maxilla 1; G. maxilla2; H. bladesenlarged; I. maxilliped; J. leg 1; K.
exopod ;~ L. tip of endopod, leg 2;, M. deg 2;,4N.exopod;; .O: Jeg 3°; Ps
leg4; Q.endopod. R-T. Male: R. dorsal view; S. maxilliped; T. leg 5

spine, and a simple third spine. Second segment of maxilliped
comparatively broad, claw short, with a small blunt accessory process.

[45 ]

peat ss RS ag Pad

he ie cabiscrt gacg cea lee ate eS sn i ORAS as Ha

COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES—3 a3

First leg with three-segmented rami. Endopod of second leg
broad, third segment with two short winged spines, each carrying an
apical spinule, exopod with six spines, first spine toothed on both
sides, second to fifth only on the outer side, and sixth without teeth,
each spine with a pectinate apical seta. Endopod of third leg very
slightly broader than exopod, exopod with five spines, last spine
pectinate externally. Rami of fourth leg of equal breadth, spines on
exopod similar to those on third !eg, endopod with two outer pectinate
spines and three pectinate distal spines, median distal spine moderately
long. Fifth leg of uniform width, second segment with three pectinate
‘spines and a simple seta.

Total length 2.5 mm.:

Male. Carapace broader than long, with very prominent
rostrum, trunk segments steadily narrowing backwards, genital segment
large, abdomen three-segmented, slightly narrowing backwards.
Second segment of maxilliped with two rows of tubercles, third segment
with a spine and a marginal row of tubercles.

Total length 1.4 mm.

Remarks. In the shape of the processes of the first antenna
B. kanagurta resembles B. triceros Heller, but in the latter the nature
of the third and fourth trunk segments and the spinulation of the legs
are different. In the over-all shape of the body and the structure of the
legs B. kanagurta also resembles B. denticulatus Bassett-Smith, but
the structure of the processes on the first antenna easily distinguishes.
them. The denticulate and hairy inner process of the first maxilla
and the spatulate blade of the second maxilla are very characteristic
of B. kanagurta.

Bomolochus monoceros sp. nov.
Text-fig. 22

Material. 7 females were collected from the inner surface of
the opercle of Carangoides talabaricus (Bloch) by the author at
Trivandrum. Holotype, female, is deposited in the Indian Museum,
Calcutta (Reg. No. €4615/1). :

Female. Carapace roughly semicircular, with nearly straight
hind border, antero-median groove fairly deep. ‘Trunk segments
steadily narrowing backwards. Genital segment enlarged, much longer
than adjacent segments. Abdomen short, three-segmented. Anal

[ 46 ]

54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

laminae short. Egg sacs long, slender, and cylindrical, nearly as long
as the body. “ie

MOU

~—S 27a

.
2 Soret yet f “ . ts -
AR i BSF e/ fe . 7 :
. > ee Bate feo
CA
se
re

= 6

z ft)

22 f ay
oa) LX x4)
3-

» C) Ce?
Sete pened
TO AMIS (SC
bseei | (et%e

z= Boxy vareg5

eq S AX) (TT Ay
CHK, Bee

2 OO ro

(Oy Seee4

RH TRS

> fey ee
COX (AS

Ld ves ec2s

t Hh BeaH
$610) RO)
CE ad

See ee
ELAR ee
oes" Gear,
CY) (HY
esommnsss®
te ke
eis ey

Fig. 22. Bomolochus monoceros sp. nov. Female: A. dorsal view ;
B. antennal; C. antenna 2; D. mandible; E. maxilla 1; F. maxilla 2;
G. maxilliped; H.leg 1; I.exopod; J.eleg 2; K.exopod; I.. tip of

endopod ; M. leg 3; N.exopod; O. tip of endopod; P. leg 4; Q. endo-
pod; R. leg 5

Basal part of first antenna with a single large chitinised,
apically curved spine. Distal segment of second antenna with longi-
tudinal rows of denticles, distal border with a bunch of seven com-
paratively weak claws. Mandible with broad spiny blades, lower

[47]

Ap = aay

COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES—3 a5

Second maxilla with
Claw of maxilliped

blade smaller. First maxilla with four setae.
a small spine and two subsimilar spiny blades.
with well-developed accessory process.

First leg with three-segmented rami. Endopod of second leg
broad, with two winged spines, each carrying a spinule, exopod with
six spines, first spine winged on both sides, last winged externally,
others toothed on both sides, each spine with a subapical spinule.
Endopod of third leg only slightly broader than exopod, latter with
the surface pustulose and carrying five spines toothed externally, fifth
spine comparatively large. Exopod of fourth leg similar to that of
third, endopod with two outer pectinate spines and three distal spines,
third segment distally spiny. Basal segment of fifth leg with a patch
of spinules and a plumose seta, distal segment comparatively long
and externally spiny, with three pectinate spines and a long spine seta.

Total length 1.9 mm.

Remarks. In the structure of the legs, particularly the spinula-
tion of the exopods, this species resembles B. decapteri Yamaguti
(1936) but in the latter the third trunk segment overlaps the fourth
considerably and the egg sacs are oblong.

REFERENCES

BASSETT-SMITH, P. W. (1898a) : Some
new parasitic copepods found on fish at
clad Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. 1(7) :

-17.

(1898b) : Further new para-
sitic copepods found on fish in the Indo-
Tropical region. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist.
2 (7): 77-98.

GNANAMUTHU, C. P. (1947) : Bomo-
lochus multispinosa sp. nov. an ergasilid
copepod observed in copulation. Rec.
Ind. Mus. 45 : 309-319.

——— (1948): Bomolochus acuta n. sp.
a copepod parasitic on the gills of
Dussumieria acuta. Proc. Ind. Acad.
Sci. 27 : 18-25.

HELLER, C. (1865) : Crustaceen : Reise
der Osterreichischen Fregatte Novara in
die Sude in den Jehren 1857-59. Zool.
Teil : 1-280.

Pirtal, N. K. (1962) : On a new
species of Bomolochus with remarks on
2 aedeeg Shen. J. Parasitology 48:

SHEN, C.J. (1957) : Parasitic copepods
from fishes of China. Part 1. Cyclo-
poida (1). Acta zool. Sinica 9: 314-
327.

SHIINO, S, M. (1957) : Copepods para-

sitic on Japanese fishes. 16. Bomolos
chidae and Taeniacanthidae. Rep. Fac.
Fish. Pref. Univ. Mie. 2 : 411-428.

Stock, J. H. (1953) Bomolochus
soleae, 1864, and B. confusus n. sp. two
hitherto confounded parasitic copepods,
with remarks on some other Bomolochus
species. Beaufortia 24: 1-13.

WILSON, C.B. (1911) : North Ameri-
can parasitic copepods belonging to the
family Ergasilidae. Proc. U. S. Nat.
Mus. 39 : 263-400.

YAMAGUTI, S. (1936) : Parasitic cope-

pods from fishes of Japan. Pt. 1. Cyclo-
poidal: 1-8.
(1939) : Parasitic copepods
from fishes of Japan. Pt. 4. Cyclopoida
II. Vol. Jubil. Prof. S. Yoshida 2:
392-415.

———— (1953): Parasitic copepods
from fishes of Japan. Pt. 7. Cyclopoida
III. Caligoida IV. Publ. Seto mar. Biol.
Lab. 3: 221-231.

& YAMASU, T. (1959) :
Parasitic copepods from fishes of Japan
with descriptions of 26 new species and
remarks on two known species. Biol. J.
Okayama Univ. 5 : 89-165.

—

[ 48]

The Exotic Flora of Kodaikanal

K. M. MATTHEW, S.J.

For over a century, Kodaikanal (2000-2300 m.) with its quasi-
temperate climate has been a favourite hill station in south India. A
number of European officials of the British Indian Government and
missionaries spent their summer months there or made it their home
after retirement from service. It is known that many of these people
have introduced various plants at Kodaikanal from semi-tropical or
temperate regions of the world. Over the years, these plants became so
well naturalized and spread that at present some of the exotic species
are among the more prominent members of the vegetation.

To a student of botany in India, such species are very interesting on
the one hand, but on the other they offer great difficulties with their
correct identification. J. S. Gamble and P. F. Fyson, who wrote on the
Flora of Madras, mention together just over 100 species of introduced
plants at Kodaikanal, but this hardly helps in the identification of these
plants, much less in a complete knowledge of the species. Besides, these
two authors have left unmentioned a far greater number of species.
Botanists visiting the place were often unable to identify the plants or,
still worse, gave wrong names to them. Besides the problem of their
correct identity, their ecology in the new habitat had to be studied
against similar data from their native countries. More recently,
numerous queries used to be made regarding the possibility of commer-
cial exploitation of some of the economically important plants like
wattles, eucalyptus, fruit trees, and grasses. Thus the need for an
exhaustive study of the exotic flora was pressing, which the present
author made during 1960-1962 (in addition to his previous explorations
during 1950-1960), the results of which have been incorporated in a thesis
accepted by the University of Bombay towards the degree of PH.D.

The work is a taxonomic study of what may be called the per-
manent exotic flora of Kodaikanal, consisting of the woody plants
and naturalized herbs, leaving out the exotic herbs of the vegetable
and flower gardens, which are more or less transient. The term
exotic connotes introduced plants from outside peninsular India.

A word about the identification of the plants. After checking
the plants at five Indian herbaria, including the Central National
Herbarium, Calcutta, the identity of a number of plants still remain-
ed doubtful. Hence the following experts from outside India were

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF KODAIKANAL a7

consulted: H. Gaussen, Directeur du Laboratoire Forestier, Toulouse,
(Gymnosperms) ; S. T. Blake, Botanic Gardens, Brisbane, (Eucalyptus) ;
the Superintendent, Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya, (Palms); and
the Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

Pending the publication of the work in book form, a complete
enumeration of the species studied is published here. 344 species
from 223 genera belonging to 82 families are enumerated.
Families are arranged as in Bentham & Hooker: GENERA PLANTARUM
(1862-1883), except for placing the Gymnosperms at the beginning,
and for following Hutchinson’s FAMILIES OF FLOWERING PLANTS
(1959) in the splitting up of certain families into more uniform groups.
Within each family, genera and species are given in alphabetical order. _

Besides making available a full-list of names of the large number of
exotic species growing in the area, the present paper gives the correct
name of each plant according to the norms of the INTERNATIONAL CODE
OF BOTANICAL NOMENCLATURE (ed. 1961) with the full reference to the
original publication of the name. The basionym and the commoner
Synonyms, one of which is often the one in use in India, are added
in order to prevent confusion regarding the identity of the plant following
the adoption of the less known but scientifically correct name. Plants,
the names of which are preceded by an asterisk (*), have been examined
only in herbaria from earlier collections from the area, as these no
longer grow here.

ENUMERATION OF SPECIES
GY MNOSPERMAE

PODOCARPACEAE

1. Podocarpus brevifolius (Stapf) Foxw. in Philip. Journ. Sci. 6:
160, t. 29, f. 2, 1911. P. neriifolius var. brevifolius Stapf.

ARAUCARIACEAE

2. Araucaria bidwillii Hook. in Lond. Journ. Bot. 2: 503, tt.
18 & 19, 1843,

PINACEAE

3. Cedrus deodara (Roxb.) G. Don in Loud. Hort. 388, 1830.
Pinus deodara Roxb.
4. Pinus canariensis Sm. in Buch. Beschr. Can. Ins. 159, 1825,

58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

*5. Pinus echinata Mill. Gard. Dict. (ed. 8) n. 12, 1768.
6. Pinus insularis End]. Syn. Conif. 157, 1847. P. keseya Royle ex
Endl. P. khasiana Griff. P. khasya Royle ex Parl.
*7, Pinus pinaster Ait. Hort. Kew. 3: 367, 1789.
8. Pinus pinea L. Sp. Pl. 1000, 1753.
9. Pinus radiata D. Don in Trans. Linn. Soc. 17 : 442, 1837. P. in-
signis Dougl. ex Loud. |
10. Pinus roxburghii Sarg. in Silv. N. Am. 2: 9, 1897. P. longifolia
Roxb.
11. Pinus torreyana Parr. ex Torr. in Bot. U. S. & Mex. Bound.
Surv. 210, tt. 58 & 59, 1858.
12. Pinus wallichiana Jacks. in Kew Bull. 85, 1938. P. excelsa Wall.
ex Lamb., non Lam. P. nepalensis De Chambr. P. griffithii McCl.

TAXODIACEAE

13. Cryptomeria japonica (L. f.) D. Don in Trans. Linn. Soc. Bot.
18: 167, t. 13 (1), 1839. Cupressus japonica L. f.

14. Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb.) Hook. in Bot. Mag. 54: t.
2743, 1827. Pinus lanceolata Lamb. Cunninghamia sinensis R. Br. ex
Rich.

15. Sequoia sempervirens (Lamb.) Endl. Syn. Conif. 198, 1847.
Taxodium sempervirens Lamb.

CUPRESSACEAE

16. Callitris oblonga Rich. Conif. 49, t. 18, f. 2, 1826.

17. Callitris rhomboidea R. Br. ex Rich! Conif. 47, t. 18, 1826;
Bullock in Taxon 6 (8): 227, 1957. Frenela rhomboidea Endl. Callitris
cupressiformis Muell.

18. Chamaecyparis lawsoniana (Murr.) Parl. in Ann. Mus. Stor.
Nat. Fir. 1: 181, 1864. Cupressus lawsoniana A. Murr.

19. Cupressus arizonica Gr. in Bull. Torr. Cl. 9: 64, 1882. \

20. Cupressus funebris Endl. Syn. Conif. 58, 1847. |

21. Cupressus goveniana Gord. in Journ. Hort. Soc. 4: 295, 1849.

22. Cupressus lusitanica Mill. Gard. Dict. (ed. 8) n. 3, 1768.

23. Cupressus macrocarpa Hartw. in Journ. Hort. Soc. 2: 187, 1847,
nomen, et ex Gord. in Journ. Hort. Soc. Lond. 4: 296, 1849.

24. Cupressus sempervirens L. Sp. Pl. 1002, 1753. vi

25. Cupressus torulosa D. Don, Prodr. 55, 1825.

26. Libocedrus decurrens Torr. in Sm. Inst. Contrib. Knowled. 6
(1): 7 (Pl. Frem. 7, t. 3, 1853) 1854.

27. Thuja orientalis L. Sp. Pl. 1002, 1753,

_ THE EXOTIC FLORA OF KODAIKANAL 59

28. Widdringtonia juniperoides (L.) Endl. Syn. Conif. 32, 1847.
Cupressus juniperoides L. Callitris arborea Schrad. ex Mey.

ANGIOSPERMAE

CALYCANTHACEAE

29. Chimonanthus praecox (L.) Link, Enum. Pl. Hort. Berol. 2: 66,
1822. Calycanthus praecox L.

MAGNOLIACEAE

30. Magnolia campbellii Hook. f. & Thoms. Fl. Ind. 1: 77, 1855.

31. Magnolia grandiflora L. Syst. (ed. 10) 2: 1082, 1759.

32. Magnolia liliiflora Desr. in Lamk. Encycl. 3: 675, 1791. ™.
purpurea Curt. M. discolor Vent.

PAPAVERACEAE

33. Romneya coulteri Harv. in Hook. Lond. Journ. Bot. 4: 74, t.
31, 1845.

FUMARIACEAE

*34. Corydalis lutea (L.) DC. FI. Fr. 4: 638, 1812. Fumaria lutea L.

CRUCIFERAE

35. Barbarea vulgaris R. Br. in Ait. f. Hort. Kew. (ed. 2) 4:
109, 1812.

36. Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Med. Pflanzeng. 85, 1792. Thlaspi
bursa-pastoris L.

37. Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm. Fl. Brit. 2: 691, 1800-1804. Lepi-
dium didymum L. Senebiera didyma Pers.

38. Nasturtium officinale R. Br. in Ait. f. Hort. Kew. (ed. 2) 4: 110,
1812.

*39. Sisymbrium wolgense Marsch. Bieb. ex Ledeb. FI. Ross. 1 :' 178,

1842, in obs., nomen nudum ; Fourn. Recherch. Crucif. 97, n. 64, 1865,
descr.

FLACOURTIACEAE

40, Aphloia mauritiana Baker, Fl, Maurit. 12, 1877,

60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)
CARYOPHYLLACEAE

41. Polycarpon tetraphyllum (L.) L. Syst. (ed. 10) 881, 1759. Mollugo

tetraphylla L.
42. Silene gallica L. Sp. Pl. 417, 1753.

HYPERICACEAE

43. Hypericum hookerianum Wt. & Arn. Prodr. 99, 1834. H. oblon-
gifolium Hook. f.

SAURAUIACEAE

44. Saurauia nepaulensis DC. in Mem. Soc. Phys. Genev. 1: 421,
1822.

THEACEAE

45. Camellia japonica L. Sp. Pl. 698, 1753. Thea japonica Baill.

46. Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze, Um die Erde 500, 1881, et in
Act. Hort. Petrop. 10: 195, 1887. Thea sinensis L. T. bohea L. T.
viridis L. T. chinensis Sims. Camellia thea Link. Thea assamica Mast.
Camellia theifera Griff. [Wight in Curr. Sc. 31 (7) : 298-299, 1962,
again revises the nomenclature. |

47. Schima wallichii (DC.) Choisy in Zoll. Syst. Verz. Ind. shee
144, 1854. Gordonia wallichii DC. |

MALVACEAE

48. Abutilon megapotamicum (Spreng.) St. Hil. & Naud. in Ann,
Sc. Nat. (Ser. 2) 18 : 49, 1842. Periptera megapotamica (Spreng.)
G. Don. Sida megapotamica Spreng. Abutilon vexillarium E. Morr.

49. Althaea rosea Cav. Diss. 2: 91, t. 29, f. 3, 1786.

50. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Sp. Pl. 694, 1753.

51. Hibiscus syriacus L. Sp. Pl. 695, 1753.

52. Malvaviscus arboreus Cav. Diss. 3: t. 48, f. 1, 1787. Achania

malvayiscus Swartz.
STERCULIACEAE

53. Brachychiton acerifolius (Cunn.) Muell. Fragm. Phyt. Austral.

1: 1, 1858-1859. Sterculia acerifolia A. Cunn.
54. Dombeya acutangula Cav. Diss. 3 : 123, t. 38, f. 2, 1787, Astra-

paea tiliaefolia Sw,

fo ¥ BG sx
i Abel ce Ea lians

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF KODAIKANAL 61

*55. Dombeya burgessiae Gerr. ex Harv. & Sond. Fl. Cap. 2, 590,
1862.
56. Dombeya mastersii Hook. f. in Bot. Mag. 93 : t. 5639, 1867.
57. Dombeya wallichii (Lindl.) K. Schum. in Pflanzenfam. 3 (4) :
78, 1890. Astrapaea wallichii Lindl.

GERANIACEAE

58. Pelargonium graveolens L’Her. Geran. t. 17, 1787-1788. Gera-
nium graveolens Thunb.

59. Pelargonium grossularioides (L.) Ait. Hort. Kew. 2 : 420, 1789.
Geranium grossularioides L.

OXALIDACEAE

*60. Oxalis cernua Thunb. Diss. Oxal. 14, t. 2, f. 2, 1781.
61. Oxalis deppei Lodd. Bot. Cab. 15: t. 1500, 1828. Often erro-
neously named O. tetraphylla Cav.
62. Oxalis latifolia H. B. K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 5 : 184, t. 467, 1821.
63. Oxalis martiana Zucc. in Denkschr. Akad. Muench. 9: 144,
1823-1824. O. corymbosa DC.
64. Oxalis pubescens H.B.K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 5: 240, 1820.
65. Oxalis variabilis var. rubra Jacq. Oxal. 90, t. 53, 1794.

TROPAEOLACEAE

66. Tropaeolum majus L. Sp. Pl. 345, 1753.

RUTACEAE

67. Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck, Dagbok Ostind Resa 41, 1757,
nomen, et Reise Ostind & China, 250, 1765. C. aurantium var.
sinensis L. :

68. Choisya ternata Kunth in H.B.K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 6: 6, t.
513, 1823. |
69. Enuodia fraxinifolia (Don) Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 1 : 490, 1875.

Rhus fraxinifolium Don.
*70, Ruta graveolens L. Sp. Pl. 383, 1753.

AQUIFOLIACEAE

— *71, Tex aquifolium L. Sp. Pl. 125, 1753.
72, lex opaca Ait. Hort. Kew. 1 : 169, 1789.

62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)
RHAMNACEAE

73. Colletia cruciata Gill. ex Hook. in Hook. Bot. Misc. 1 : 152, t.
43, 1829. 3
74. Hovenia dulcis Thunb. Fl. Jap. 101, 1784.
*75. Noltea africana (L.) Reichb. ex Harv. & Sond. Fl. Cap. 1 : 478,
1859-1860. Ceanothus africanus L.
76. Pomaderris lanigera Sims in Bot. Mag. 43 : t. 1823, 1816.

MELIANTHACEAE

77. Méelianthus major L. Sp. Pl. 639 (err. typ. 939), 1753.

HIPPOCASTANACEAE

78. Aesculus indica (Camb.) Hook. in Bot. Mag. 85: t. 5117,
1859. A. indica Colebr. Pavia indica Wall. ex Camb.

ACERACEAE

*79. Acer caesium Wall. ex Brandis, For. Fl. 111, t. 21, 1874.
80. Acer pseudo-platanus L. Sp. Pl. 1054, 1753. |

ANACARDIACEAE

81. Schinus molle L. Sp. Pl. 388, 1753.

PAPILIONACEAE

*82. Castanospermum australe A.Cunn. & Fras. in Hook. Bot.
Misc. 1 : 241, t. 51, 1830.

*83. Chorizema ilicifolium Labill. Voy. 1 : 405, 1800.

84. Crotalaria agatiflora Schweinf. ex Engl. in Abhandl. Preuss.

Akad. Wiss. 1891, 2 : 244, 1892, nomen, et in Hoehnel. zum Rudolph.

Append. 13, 1892.

*85. Erythrina crista-galli L. Mant. 1 : 99, 1767.

*86. Hardenbergia comptoniana (Link) Benth. in Endl. & Fenzl,
Enum. Pl. Hueg. 41, 1837. Kennedya comptoniana Link.

87. Laburnum anagyroides Med. in Vorl. Kurp. Ges. 2 : 363, 1787.

*88. Robinia pseudoacacia L. Sp. Pl. 722, 1753.
89. Sarothamnus scoparius (L.) W. D. J. Koch, Syn. Fl. Germ.
Helv. 152, 1837. Spartium scoparium L. Cytisus scoparius (L.) Link.

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF KODAIKANAL 63

90. Spartium junceum L. Sp. Pl. 708, 1753. Genista juncea Scop.
91. Trifolium dubium Sibth. Fl. Oxon. 231, 1794.
*92. Trifolium pratense L. Sp. Pl. 768, 1753.
93. Trifolium repens L. Sp. Pl. 767, 1753.
94. Ulex europeus L. Sp. Pl. 241, 1753.
95. Wisteria sinensis (Sims) Sw. Hort. Brit. 121, 1827. Glycine
sinensis Sims. Wisteria chinensis DC.

CAESALPINIACEAE

96. Cassia didymobotrya Fresen. in Flora 22 (1): 53, 1839; de
Wit in Webbia 11 : 241, 1955.
97. Cassia laevigata Willd. Enum. Hort. Berol. 441, 1809.
98. Cassia tomentosa L. f. Supp. 231, 1781; de Wit in Webbia
i: 275, 1955.
*99. Ceratonia siliqua L. Sp. Pl. 1026, 1753.
100. Schizolobium excelsum Vog. in Linn. 11 : 399, 1837.

MIMOSACEAE

101. Acacia baileyana Muell. in Trans. & Proc. Roy. Soc. Vic. 24:

168, 1888. , F
*102. Acacia cunninghamii Hook. Ic. Pl. t. 165, 1837.

103. Acacia cyanophylla Lindl. Bot. Reg. (Misc.) 49, 1839. _

104. Acacia dealbata Link, Enum. Hort. Berol. 445, 1822.
A. decurrens (Wendl.) Willd. var. dealbata Muell. ex Maiden.

105. Acacia decurrens (Wendl.) Willd. Sp. Pl. 4: 1072, 1806.
Mimosa decurrens Wendl.

106. Acacia elata A. Cunn. ex Benth. in Hook. Lond. Journ. Bot.
1: 383, 1842.

107. Acacia lindleyi Meissn. in Lehm. Pl. Preiss. 1 : 14, 1844.

108. Acacia longifolia Willd. Sp. Pl. 4: 1052, 1806.

109, Acacia maidenii Muell. in Macl. Mem. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales
722, t..29;, 1893;

110. Acacia mearnsii (‘ mearnsi’) De Willd. Pl. Bequaert. 3: 61,
1925; Brenan & Melville in Kew Bull. 37-39, 1960. <A. decurrens
(Wendl.) Willd. var. mollis Lindl. A. mollissima sensu auct. mult. e.g.
Benth. in Hook. Lond. Journ. Bot. 1: 385, 1842, non Willd. [quae =
A. pubescens (Vent.) Ait. f. Hort. Kew. (ed. 2) 5: 467, 1813].

111. Acacia melanoxylon R. Br. in Ait. f. Hort. Kew. (ed. 2) 5:
462, 1813.

112. Acacia podalyriifolia A. Cunn. in G. Don, Syst. 2: 405,
1832. .

64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

*113. Acacia retinodes Schlecht..in Linn: 20: 664, 1847, et in Bot.
Zeit: (e293, 1853.

114. Albizia distachya (Vent.) Macb. in Contrib. Gray Herb. (N.S.)
59:3, 1919. Mimosa distachya Vent. Albizia lophantha (Willd.) Benth.
Acacia lophantha Willd.

115. Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit in Taxon 10 (2): 54, 1961.
Mimosa leucocephala Lam. Acacia glauca (L.) Willd. Mimosa glauca
L. Leucaena glauca (Willd.) Benth.

ROSACEAE

116. Chaenomeles lagenaria (Loisel) Koidz. in Bot. Mag. Tok. 23:
173, 1909. Cydonia lagenaria Loisel. Pyrus japonica Sims. P. cydonia
Lour. Malus japonica Andr.

117. Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lind]. in Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond,
13: 102, 1821. Mespilus japonica Thunb.

118. Malus baccata (L.) Borkh. Handb. Forstbot. 2: 1280, 1803.
Pyrus baccata L.

119. Malus sylvestris (L.) Mill. Gard. Dict. (ed. 8) n. 1, 1768.
Pyrus malus var. sylvestris L.

*120. Prinsepia utilis Royle, Ill. Bot. Himal. 206, t. 38, f. 1, 1834,
et 202 & 206, 1835.
*121. Prunus armenia¢éa L. Sp. Pl. 474, 1753. ,

122. Prunus cerasoides D. Don, Prodr. 239, 1825. P. silvatica
Roxb. Cerasus phoshia Hamilt. ex D. Don. Prunus puddum Roxb. ex
Brandis. ;

*123. Prunus domestica L. Sp. Pl. 475, 1753, p.p. typ.

124. Prunus persica (L.) Batsch, Beytr. Entw. Pragm. Gesch. Naturr.
30, 1801. Amygdalus persica L. Persica vulgaris Mill.

125. Prunus salicina Lindl. in Trans. Hort. Soc. Lond. 7: 239,
1828. Prunus triflora Roxb.

126. Pyrus communis L. Sp. Pl. 459, 1753.

127. Rosa banksiae Ait. f. Hort. Kew. (ed. 2) 3:258, 1811.
‘R. inermis Roxb.

128. Rosa centifolia L. Sp. Pl. 491, 1753.

129. Rosa damascena Mill. Gard. Dict. (ed. 8) n. 15, 1768.

130.. Spiraea canescens D. Don, Prodr. 227, 1825.

131. Spiraea cantoniensis Lour. Fl. Cochinch. 1 : 322, 1790.

S. corymbosa Roxb.

PHILADELPHACEAE

132. Deutzia gracilis Sieb. & Zucc. Fl. Jap. 1:22, t. 8, 1835.
133. Deutzia scabra Thunb. FI. Jap. 185, t. 24, 1784.
134. Philadelphus coronarius L. Sp. Pl. ¢70, 1753.

is SS SiN

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF KODAIKANAL 65

HYDRANGEACEAE

135. Hydrangea macrophylla (Thunb.) Ser. in DC. Prodr. 4: 15,
1830. Viburnum macrophyllum Thunb. Hortensia opuloides WLamk.
Hydrangea hortensis Sm. H. hortensia (Lamk.) Sieb.

ESCALLONIACEAE

136. Escallonia macrantha Hook. & Arn. in Hook. Bot. Misc. 3:
341, 1833.

HAMAMELIDACEAE

137. Liquidambar styraciflua L. Sp. Pl. 999, 1753.

138. Symingtonia populnea (R. Br.) Steen. in Act. Bot. Neerl. 1:
e44 1952: Vink m-FI. Mal. 1, 5(3):.375, f. 7,..1958. Bucklandia
populnea R. Br. Liquidambar tricuspis Miq. Bucklandia populifolia
Hook. f. & Thoms, B. tricuspis Hall. f. Exbucklandia populnea
R. W. Brown,

MYRTACEAE

139. Angophora costata (Gaertn.) Britt. in Journ. Bot. 54: 62,
1916. Metrosideros costata Gaertn. Angophora lanceolata Cav.

140. Baeckea virgata (Forst.) Andr. Bot. Rep. 598, 1810. Lepto-
spermum virgatum Fotst.

141. Callistemon brachyandrus Lindl. in Journ. Hort. Soc. 4: 112,
1849.

142. Callistemon citrinus (Curt.) Stapf in Bot. Mag. 150: t. 9050,
1925. Metrosideros citrina Curt. Callistemon lanceolatus DC.

143. Eucalyptus calophylla R. Br. ex Lindl. in Bot. Reg. (App.) 157,
1841. *

144. Eucalyptus citriodora Hook. in Mitch. Journ. Exped. Trop.
Austral. 235, 1848. £. maculata var. citriodora Muell.

*145. Eucalyptus cladocalyx Muell. in Linnea 25: 388, 1852. E.

corynocalyx Muell.

146. Eucalyptus crebra Muell. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 3: 87, 1858.

147. Eucalyptus diversicolor Muell. Fragm. Phytogr. Austral. 3: 131,

1863.
148. Eucalyptus ficifolia Muell. Fragm. Phytogr. Austral. 2: 85,

1860, et 6: 25, 1867.

149. Eucalyptus globulus Labill. Rel. ae Recher. Per. bo. te
13, 1799.

150. Eucalyptus longifolia Link, Enum. Pl. Hort. Reg. Berol. 2: 29,
1822.
151. Eucalyptus macarthurii Deane & Maiden in Proc. Linn. Soc.
N. S. Wales 24: 448, 1882.

66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

152. Eucalyptus nova-anglica Deane & Maiden in Proc. Linn. Soc.
N. S. Wales 24 : 616, 1882.

153. Eucalyptus obliqua L’Herit. Sert. Angl. 18, t. 20, 1788.

154. Eucalyptus piperita Sm. in Wh. Journ. Voy. N.S. Wales, 226,
1790.

155. Eucalyptus radiata Sieb. ex DC. Prodr. 3: 218, 1828.

156. Eucalyptus regnans Muell. in Rep. Acclim. Soc. Vict. 20, i

1870.

157. Eucalyptus robusta Sm. Spec. Bot. New Holl. 40, t. 13, 1793,
et in Trans. Linn. Soc. 3: 283, 1796.

158. Eucalyptus rossii R. T. Baker & H.G. Sm. Res. Euc. 70,
1889.

159. Eucalyptus sieberiana Muell. Eucalyptogr. Dec. 2, 1879,

160. Eucalyptus tereticornis Sm. Spec. Bot. New Holl. 41, 1793, et
in Trans. Linn, Soc. 3 : 284, 1797.

161. Eucalyptus viminalis Labill. Nov. Holl. Pl. Spec. 2: 12, t. 151,
1806.

162. Feijoa sellowiana (Berg) Berg in Linnea 29: 258, 1858. Ortho-
stemon sellowianus Berg.

163. Leptospermum scoparium Forst. Char. Gen. 71, t. 36, 1776,

164. Melaleuca styphelioides Sm. in Trans. Linn. Soc, 3: 275,
1797.

165. Myrtus communis L. Sp. Pl. 471, 1753.

166. Syncarpia glomulifera (Sm.) Nied. in Pflanzenfam. 3 (7): 88,
1893. Metrosideros glomulifera Sm. Syncarpia laurifolia Ten.

167. Tristania conferta R. Br. in Ait. f. Hort. Kew, (ed. 2) 4: 417,
1812.

MELASTOMACEAE Pn

168. Tibouchina semidecandra Cogn. in Mart. Fl. Bras. 14 (3): 365,
1817-1820.

LYTHRACEAE
169. Lagerstroemia indica L. Sp. Pl. (ed. 2) 734, 1762.

ONAGRACEAE

170. Fuchsia boliviana Carr. var. luxurians Johnston, Rev. Hort.
150, 1876.

171. Fuchsia magellanica Lame Encycl. 2: 564, 1788. F. coccinea
Curt. F. macrostemma Ruiz & Pav.

172. Ocnothera biennis L. Sp. Pl. 346, 1753.

*173. Ocenothera nocturna Jacq. Coll. 3: 205, 1790, et Ic. Pl. Rar. 3
(3): 455, 1789.

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF KODAIKANAL 67

174. Odcnothera odorata Jacq. Ic. Pl. Rar. 3 (3): t. 456, 1789, et Coll.
Suppl. 107, 1790. |
175. Oecnothera rosea Ait. Hort. Kew. 2,593,178 9:
176. Ocnothera tetraptera Cav. Ic. 3: 40, t. 279, 1794.

PASSIFLORACEAE

177. Passiflora antioquiensis Karst. in Linn. 30: 162, 1859.

178. Passiflora caerulea L. Sp. Pl. 959, 1753.

179. Passiflora calcarata Mast. in Trans. Linn. Soc. 27: 638, 1871.

180. Passiflora edulis Sims in Bot. Mag. 45: t. 1989, 1818.

181. Passiflora mollissima (H.B.K.) Bailey in Rhod. 18: 156, 1916.
Tacsonia mollissima H.B.K.

CARICACEAE

182. Carica ea rdiianiateensis Lind. Cat 87, Novi SC. candamar-
censis Hook. f.

ARALIACEAE

183. Hedera helix L. Sp. Pl. 202, 1753.
184. Tetrapanax papyrifer (Hook.) C. Koch & Fint, Woch. 2: 371,
1859. Aralia papyrifera Hook. Fatsia papyrifera Hook.

CAPRIFOLIACEAE

185. Lonicera sempervirens L. Sp. Pl. 173, 1753.

RUBIACEAE

186. Cinchona calisaya Wedd. in Ann. Sc. Nat. (Ser. ae LO 6:
1848.

187. Cinchona calisaya var. ledgeriana How. Quin. E. Ind. Pl. 86,
tt. 4-6, 1876.

188. Cinchona officinalis L. Syst. (ed. 10) 929, 1759, et Sp. PI. (ed.
2) 244, 1763. C. condaminea H.B. ~

189. Cinchona succirubra Pay. ex Klot. in Abh. Akad. Berl. 60,
1857.

190. Coffea arabica L. Sp. Pl. 172, 1753.

191. Luculia gratissima Sw. Brit. Fl. Gard. t. 145, 1823. Cinchona
gratissima Wall. ex. Roxb.

192. Luculia pinceana Hook. in Bot. es AA ted 13D. 1845.

COMPOSITAE

193. Ageratum houstonianum Mill. Gard. Dict. (ed. 8) n. 2, 1768.
A, mexicanum Sims.

68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

194. Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium (Trev.) Vis. Fl. Dalmat. 2: 88,
t. 8, 1842-1852. Pyrethrum cinerariaefolium Trev.

195. Chrysanthemum frutescens L. Sp. Pl. 887, 1753.

196. Cotula australis Hook. f. Fl. Nov. Zel. 128, 1852.

197. Dahlia imperialis Roezl in Gartenfl. 12:243, tt. 407 & 408,
1863, et 56:22; 1907.

198. Erechthites valerianiifolia (Wolf.) DC. Prodr. 6: 295, 1838.
Senecio valerianaefolius Wolf.

199. Erigeron bonariensis L. Sp. Pl. 863, 1753. £. linifolius Willd.
Conyza ambigua DC.

200. Erigeron canadensis L. Sp. PI. 863, 1753.

201. Erigeron karvinskianus DC. Prodr. 5: 285, 1836. £. mucro-
natus DC,

202. .Eupatorium glandulosum H.B.K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 4: 122,
1820. £.adenophorum Spreng.

203. Galinsoga parviflora Cav. Ic. 3: 41, t. 281, 1794.

204. Helichrysum bracteatum Andr. Bot. LL. ae t. 428, 1805,
et Willd. Enum. Hort. Berol. 896, 1809.

205. Hypochoeris glabra L. Sp. Pl. 811, 1753.

206. Montanoa bipinnatifida C. Koch, Woch. 7 : 406, 1864.

207. Santolina chamaecyparissus L. Sp. Pl. 842, 1753.

208. Sonchus brachyotus DC. Prodr. 7: 186, 1838. [L. Boulos in

Bot. Notiser 114 (1): 57-64, 1961, points out that this species is often —

confused with S. arvensis L.|
209. Sonchus oleraceus L. Sp. Pl. 794, 1753.
210. Taraxacum officinale Web. in Wigg. Prim. Fl. Hols. 56, 1780.
211. Tithonia diversifolia Gray in Proc. Am. Acad. 19: 5, 1883.

ERICACEAE

212. Calluna vulgaris (L.) Hull, Brit. Fl. (ed. 2) 1: 114, 1808.
Erica vulgaris L.
213. Erica vagans L. Diss. Bot. Er. 10, 1770, et Mant. 2 : 230, 1771.
214. Rhododendron indicum (L.) Sw. Hort. Brit. (ed. 2) 343, 1830,
et Brit. Fl. Gard. (Ser. 2) 2: t. 128, 1883. Azalea indica L.
#215, Rhododendron mucronatum (BI.) G. Don, Gen. Syst. 3: BM,
1843. Azalea mucronata Bl.
*216. Rhododendron ponticum L. Sp. Pl. (ed. 2) 562, 1762.
*217. Rhododendron simsii Planch. in Fl. Serr. 9: 78, 1854.

OLEACEAE

218. Jasminum mesnyi Hance in Journ. Bot. 20: 37, 1862. J. pri-
mulinum Hemsl. ex Baker. ;
219. Jasminum officinale L. Sp. Pl. 7, 1753.

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF KODAIKANAL 69

APOCYNACEAE

220. Mandevilla laxa (Ruiz & Pav.) Woods. in Ann. Miss. Bot.
Gard. 19: 68, 1932, et 20: 695, 1933. Echites laxa Ruiz & Pav.
Mandevilla suaveolens Lindl.

221. Nerium indicum Mill. Gard. Dict. (ed. 8) n. 2, 1768. N. odorum
Ait. 4. odoratum Lamk.

222. Plumeria rubra L. Sp. Pl. 209, 1753. P. rubra L. forma acuti-
folia (Poir.) Woods. P. acutifolia Poir. P. acuminata Ait.

223. Vinca major L. Sp. Pl. 209, 1753.

ASCLEPIADACEAE

224. Gomphocarpus fruticosus (L.) Ait. f. Hort. Kew. (ed. 2) 2: 80,
1811. Asclepias fruticosa L.

BUDDLEJACEAE

225. Buddleja davidii Franch. in Nouv. Mus. Hist. Nat. Par. (Ser. 2)
10: 65, 1887. B. variabilis Hems].

226. Buddleja madagascariensis Lamk. Encycl.1 : 513, 1785.
B. heterophylla Lindl.

COBAEACEAE

227. Cobaea scandens Cay. Ic. 1: 15, tt. 16 & 17, 1791.

CONVOLVULACEAE

228. Ipomoea congesta R. Br. Prodr. 485, 1810; Ooststr. in Blumea
3: 500, 1940, et in Fl. Mal. 1, 4 (4): 465, 1953. Pharbitis learii Lindl.
Ipomoea learii Paxt.

SOLANACEAE

229. Brugmansia suaveolens (H.B.) Bercht. & Pres]. Rostl. 1, Solan.
45, ? 1824. Datura suaveolens H.B. ex Willd.

230. Cestrum aurantiacum Lind]. Bot. Reg. 30: 71, n. 65, 1844, et
abst. 22, 1845,

231. Cestrum elegans (Brongn.) Schlecht. in Linnea 19: 261, 1847;
Francey in Candollea 6: 123, 1934-1936. Habrothamnus elegans
Brongn. ex Neum. H. purpureus’ Lindl. Cestrum purpureum (Lindl.)
Stand].

232. Cestrum fasciculatum (Schlecht.) Miers in Hook. Lond. Journ.
Bot. 5: 151, 1846; Francey in Candollea 6: 113, 1934-1936. Meyenia ~
fasciculata Schlecht. Habrothamnus fasciculatus Brongn.

233. Cestrum nocturnum L. Sp. Pl. 191, 1753,

70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

234. Cyphomandra betacea (Cav.) Sendt. in Flora 28: 172, 1845.
Solanum betaceum Cav.

235. Nicandra physalodes (L.) Gaertn. Fruct. 2: 237, t. 131, f. 2,
1791. Atropa physalodes L.

236. Physalis peruviana L. Sp. Pl. (ed. 2) 1670, 1763. P. edulis
Sims.

237. Solanum jasminoides Paxt. Mag. Bot. 8: t. 5, 1841.

238. Solanum pseudo-capsicum L. Sp. Pl. 184, 1753.

*239. Solanum sisymbriifolium Lamk. Ill. 2: 25, 1792.

240. Solanum wendlandii Hook. f. in Bot. Mag. 113: t. 6914, 1887.

241. Streptosolen jamesonii (Benth.) Miers in Ann. & Mag. Nat.
Hist. (Ser. 2) 5: 208, 1850. Browallia jamesonii Benth.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

242. Calceolaria mexicana Benth. Pl. Hartw. 47, 1839.
243. Cymbalaria muralis (L.) Gaertn., Mey. & Scherb. Fl. Wett.
2 : 397, 1799-1802. Antirrhinum cymbalaria L. Linaria cymbalaria
Mill.
244. Digitalis purpurea L. Sp. Pl. 621, 1753.
245. Hebe andersonii (Lindl. & Paxt.) Cock. in Trans. & Proc.,
N. Z. Inst. 60 : 468, 1929. Veronica andersonii Lindl. & Paxt.
246. Maurandia barclaiana Lindl. Bot. Reg. 13: t. 1108, 1827.
*247. Verbascum thapsus L. Sp. Pl. 177, 1753.
248: Verbascum virgatum Stokes in With. Bot. Arr. Brit. Pl. (ed. 2)
12227, 1787-1792.

BIGNONIACEAE

249. Bignonia unguis-cati L. Sp. Pl. 623, 1753. B. gracilis Lodd.

250. Campsis radicans (L.) Seem. in Journ. Bot. 5: 372, 1867.
Bignonia radicans L. ;

251. Catalpa bignonioides (L.) Walt. Fl. Carol. 64, 1788. Bignonia
catalpa L.

252. Jacaranda mimosifolia D. Don in Bot. Reg. 8: t. 631, 1822.
J. ovalifolia R. Br. }

253. Pandorea jasminoides (Lindl.) Schum. in Pflanzenfam. 4 (3 b) :
230, 1894. Tecoma jasminoides Lindl.

254. Phaedranthus buccinatorius (DC.) Miers in Proc. Roy. Hort.
Soc. 3 : 182, 1863. Pithecoctenium buccinatorium DC. Bignonia cherere
Lindl. | :

255. Phyllarthron comorense DC. ex Meissn. Gen. 244, 1840.
Arthrophyllum comorense Boj. |

256. Podranea ricasoliana (Tanf.) Sprague in Dyer, FI. Cap. 4 (2):
450, 1904. Tecoma ricasoliana Tanf,

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF KODAIKANAL 11

257. Pyrostegia venusta (Ker-Gawl.) Presl. Bot. Bemerk. 93, 1845.
Bignonia venusta Ker-Gawl. B. ignea Vell. Tecoma venusta Lem. Pyros-
tegia ignea (Vell.) Presl.

*258. Tecoma mollis H. B. K. Gen. & Sp. 3: 144, 1819.

259. Tecoma stans (L.) H.B.K. Nov. Gen. & Spec. 3: 144, 1819.
Bignonia stans L.

260. Tecomaria capensis (Thunb.) Spach, Hist. Nat. Veg. 9: 137,
1840. Bignonia capensis Thunb. Tecoma capensis Lindl.

ACANTHACEAE
261. Acanthus mollis L. Sp. Pl. 639, (err. typ. 939) 1753.

VERBENACEAE

262. Aloysia triphylla (L’Herit.) Britt. in Sc. Surv. Port. Ric. &
Virg. Isl. 6 : 140, 1925. Verbena triphylla L’Herit. Aloysia citriodora
Ort. ex Pers. Lippia citriodora H.B.K.

263. Clerodendrum fragrans var. pleniflorum Schauer in DC. Prodr.
11 : 666, 1847. C. fragrans auct. non R. Br.

264. Duranta repens L. Sp. Pl. 637, 1753. D. plumieri aed

265. Holmskioldia sanguinea Retz. Obs. Bot. 6: 31, 1791.

266. Lantana camara var. aculeata (L.) Mold. in Torreya 9; 34,
1934, et in Lilloa 4: 289, 1939. ZL. aculeata L. L. camara auct. non
L. nisi pro parte. L. scabrida Ait. f.

267. Verbena bipinnatifida Schauer in DC. Prodr. 11 : 553, 1847.

268. Verbena bonariensis L. Sp. Pl. 20, 1753.

269. Verbena rigida Spreng. Syst. 4 (Cur. Post.) 230, 1827. V.
venosa Gill & Hook.

LABIATAE

270. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Sp. Pl. 23, 1753.
271. Salvia leucantha Cav. Ic. 1 : 16, t. 24, 1791.

® NYCTAGINACEAE

272. Bougainvillea buttiana Holtt. & Standl. in Publ. Field Mus.

Nat. Hist. Chic. (Bot. Ser.) 23 : 44, 1944.
273. Bougainvillea glabra Choisy in DC. Prodr. 13(2) : 437, 1849.

AMARANTHACEAE

274. Alternanthera ficoidea (L.) R. Br. ex R. & S. Syst. 5: 555,
1819, var. bettzickiana (Nich.) Back. in Fl. Mal. 1, 4 (2): 93, 1949.
Gomphrena ficoidea L. Alternanthera bettzichiana (Regel) Nich. Telan-

thera bettzichiana Regel.
275. Iresine herbstii Hook. f. Gard. Chron. 654 & 1206, 1864,

qe JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

PHYTOLACCACEAE

276. Phytolacca dioica L. Sp. Pl. (ed. 2) 632, 1762:
277. Phytolacca octandra L. Sp. Pl..(ed. 2) 631, 1762.

POLYGONACEAE

278. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench, Meth. 290, 1794,
*279. Rumex acetosella L. Sp. Pl. 538, 1753.

LAURACEAE

280. Persea americana Mill. Gard. Dict. (ed. 8) 1768. P. gratissima
Gaertn. f.

PROTEACEAE

- 281. Banksia marginata R. Br. Prodr. 392, 1810, et in Trans. Linn.
Soc. 10: 204, 1811. B. australis R. Br.
282. Grevillea robusta A. Cunn. in R. Br. Prot. Nov. 24, 1830.
*283. Hakea acicularis Knight, Prot. 107, 1809.
284. Hakea salicifolia (Vent.) Burtt in Kew Bull. 33, 1941. Emboth-
rium salicifolium Vent. E. salignum Andr. Hakea saligna (Andr.) Kn.

BUXACEAE
285. Buxus sempervirens L. Sp. Pl. 983, 1753.

EUPHORBIACEAE

286. Acalypha wilkesiana Muell.-Arg. in DC. Prodr. 15 (2): 817,
1866. A. tricolor Hort. ex Seem.

287.. Euphorbia milii Desmoul. in Bull. Hist. Nat. Soc. Linn. Bord.
1: 27, 1826. E. splendens Boj. ex Hook.

288. Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd. ex Klot. in Otto & Dietr. Allg.
Gartenz. 2: 27, 1834. Poinsettia pulcherrima Grah.,.

289. Ricinus communis L. Sp. Pl. 1007, 1753.

MORACEAE

290. Ficus carica L. Sp. Pl. 1059, 1753.

*291. Ficus elastica Roxb. Hort. Beng. 65, 1814, nomen, et FI. Ind.
(ed.2) 3°: o4IL 1832:

292. Ficus.pumila L. Sp. Pl. 1060, 1753.

293. Morus australis Poir. Encycl. 4: 380, 1727; Nakai in Journ.
Arn. Arb. 8: 236, 1927; Rehder in Journ. Arn. Arb. 10: 123, 1929.
M. indica Thunb., non L., pro parte. M, acidosa Griff. M. alba var- indica
Bureau.

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF KODAIKANAL 73

PLATANACEAE

294. Platanus orientalis L. Sp. Pl. 999, 1753.

JUGLANDACEAE

295. Juglans regia L. Sp. Pl. 997, 1753.

CASUARINACEAE

296. Casuarina suberosa Otto & Dietr. Allg. Gartenz. 155, 1841.
297. Casuarina torulosa Ait. Hort. Kew. 3: 320, 1789.

BETULACEAE

298. Alnus nepalensis D. Don. Prodr. 58, 1825.
299. Betula alnoides Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don, Prodr. 58, 1825.

FAGACEAE

300. Castanea sativa Mill. Gard. Dict. (ed. 8) n. 1. 1768. Cas-
tanea vulgaris Lamk.

301. Castanopsis indica (Roxb.) DC. in Journ. Bot. 1: 182, 1863.
Castanea indica Roxb.

302. Fagus sylvatica L. Sp. Pl. 998, 1753.

*303. Quercus ilex L. Sp. Pl. 995, 1753.

304. Quercus incana Roxb. Hort. Beng. 104, 1814, nomen, et FI. Ind.
(ed. 2) 3: 642, 1832.

305. Quercus robur L. Sp. Pl. 996, 1753.

SALICACEAE
306. Salix babylonica L. Sp. Pl. 1017, 1753.

MUSACEAE _

307. Ensete edule Horan. Prodr. Scit. 41, 1862; Chessman in Kew
Bull. 100, 1947. Musa ensete Gmel.

*308. Musa basjoo Sieb. in Verh. Batav. Gen. 12: 18, 1830. ™.
Japonica Hort.

309. Musa ? paradisiaca L. Sp. Pl. 1043, 1753; Chessman in Kew
Bull. 106-117, 1947.

LILIACEAE

*310. Eucomis undulata Ait. Hort. Kew. 1 : 433, 1789.
311. Kniphofia uvyaria (L.) Hook. in Bot. Mag. 80: t. 4816, 1854,
Aloe uvaria L. Aletris uvaria L. Kniphofia aloides Moench,

74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

RUSCACEAE ,

312. Ruscus aculeatus L. Sp. Pl. 1041, 1753.

AMARYLLIDACEAE

313. Agapanthus africanus (L.) Hoffmgg. Verz. Pfl. 35, 1824,
Crinum africanum L. Agapanthus umbellatus L’ Herit. :

314. Agapanthus orientalis Leight. in Journ. S. Afr. Bot. 5 : 57,
var. albus Hort. Chitt. Dict. Gard. 62, 1951.

IRIDACEAE

315. Watsonia ardernei Math. & Bol. in Ann. Bol. Herb. 4: 25,
1925. , ;

AGAVACEAE

316. Cordyline australis (Forst.) Hook. f. Fl. Nov. Zel. 1 (4):
257, 1853, et in Gard. Chron. 792, 1860. Dracaena australis Forst.
317. Furcraea foetida (L.) Haw. Suppl. Pl. Succ. 73, 1819. Agave

foetida L. Furcraea gigantea Vent.
318. Phormium tenax Forst. Char. Gen. 48, 1775.

PALMAE

319. Livistona rotundifolia (Lamk.) Mart. Hist. Nat. Palm. 3: 241,

t. 102, 1837. Corypha rotundifolia Lamk. |
*320. Phoenix rupicola T. And. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 11: 13, 1871.

321. Sabal mauritiiformis (Karst.) Gr. & Wendl. in Griseb. FI. Brit.
W. Ind. 514, 1864. Trithrinax mauritiaeformis Karst.

322. Trachycarpus fortunei (Hook.) Wendl. in Bull. Soc. Fr. 8:
429, 1861.. Chamaerops fortunei Hook. Trachycarpus excelsa Wendl.

323. Washingtonia robusta Wendl. in Berl. Gaertn. Zeit. 2: 198,

1883.
ARACEAE

324. Zantedeschia aethiopica (L.) Spreng. Syst. 3: 715, 1826.
Calla aethiopica L. Richardia africana Kunth. R. aethiopica seen

Colocasia aethiopica Spreng.

GRAMINEAE

*325, Anthoxanthum hookeri (Griseb.) Rendle in Journ. Linn. Soc.
(Bot.) 36: 380, 1904. Ataxia hookeri Griseb.
326, Anthoxanthum odoratum L. Sp. Pl. 28, 1753,

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF KODAIKANAL 75

327. Brachypodium sylvaticum (Huds.) P. Beauv. Ess. Agrost.
101 & 155, 1812. Festuca sylvatica Huds.

328. Briza maxima L. Sp. Pl. 70, 1753.

*329. Briza media L. Sp. Pl. 70, 1753.
*330. Briza minor L. Sp. Pl. 70, 1753.

331. Bromus unioloides H. B. K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 1: 151, 1816.
Festuca unioloides Willd. Bromus unioloides (Willd.) Rasp. Ceratochloa
unioloides (Willd.) P. Beauv. Bromus catharticus Vahl.

332. Cortaderia selloana (Schult.) Aeschers. & Graebn. Syn. Mittel.
2: 325, 1900. Arundo selloana Schult. Gynerium argenteum Nees; Corta-
deria argentea (Nees) Stapf.

333. Dactylis glomerata L. Sp. Pl. 71, 1753.

334. Eragrostis curvula (Schrad.) Nees, Fl. Afr. Aust. 397, 1841,
Poa curvula Schrad.

335. Festuca ovina L. Sp. Pl. 73, 1753.

336. Lolium perenne L. Sp. Pl. 83, 1753.

*337, Miscanthus nepalensis (Trin.) Hack. in DC. Monogr. Phan.
6: 104, 1889. Eulalia nepalensis Trin.

338. Panicum maximum Jacq. Coll. Bot. 1: 76, 1786, et Ic. Pl. Rar.
1:2, t. 13, 1781-1786.

339. Paspalum dilatatum Poir. in Nein Encycl. 5 : 35, 1804.

340. Pennisetum clandestinum Hochst. ex Chiov. in Ann. Ist. Bot.
Rom. 8: 41, t. 5, f. 2, 1903.

341. Pennisetum purpureum Schumach. Beskr. Guin. Pl. 44, 1827.

342. Phalaris tuberosa L.-Mant. 2 : 557, 1771.

343. Poa annua L. Sp. Pl. 68, 1753.

344. Vulpia myuros (L.) Gmel. Fl. Bad. 1: 8, 1806. Festuca
myuros L.

A Note on the Mantids and Tettigonids
in the collection of the Bombay
Natural History Society

N. T. NADKERNY
Bombay Natural History Society

While rearranging the insect collections of the Bombay Natural
History Society, a few boxes containing Orthopteran insects were found
divided into their families, of which two, the Acridids and Tettigonids,
were largely identified specifically; the other families, Blattidae,
Mantidae, Phasmidae, and Gryllidae, had been left alone. A search
for relevant literature revealed that, except for Kirby’s FAUNA OF
BRITISH INDIA on Acridiidae (1914) and his A SYNONYMIC CATALOGUE
OF ORTHOPTERA in 3 volumes (1904-1910), no consolidated taxonomic
work is available. In subsequent.years a large number of species and
genera have been established and described in scattered periodicals and
journals, mostly in languages other than English. Upon a reference
being made to the British Museum (Natural History), London, Dr. David
R. Ragge of the Entomology Department replied: ‘The Phasma-
tidae and Blattidae would be impossible to identify here at present and
it would be better for you to retain the Gryllidae until the publication
of Chopard’s monograph of the oriental members of this group’. He,
however, offered to work through the Tettigoniidae and Mantidae
though he thought that identification to the species would doubtless not
be possible in every case. These two groups of insects were, therefore,
sent to London and we are thankful to Dr. Ragge for their identification.
Though no new species were recorded, the locality in many cases adds
to the known range and is published here for the use of future workers.
The species are arranged family-wise in the order now in use in the
British Museum and are listed below with such remarks as add to what
has been already recorded about them.

The following persons contributed to the collection of these
insects : ; f

(1) N. B. Kinnear, (2) C. McCann, (3) T. R. Bell, (4) P. F.
Gomes, (5) E. Blatter, (6) S. H. Prater, (7) N. A. Baptista,
(8) R. Newcome, (9) B. S. Carter, (10) D.G. Cameron, (11) F.P. Connor,
(12) J. E. B. Hotson, (13) -N. E, Standage, (14) Ac “G: Sheikh,
(15) G. C. Shortridge, (16) C. E. Southon, (17) W. S. Millard,
(18) C. H, Dracott, and (19) Saunders,

MANTIDS AND TETTIGONIDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION 77

MANTIDS

The total number of species of Indian! Mantids according to
Kirby’s CATALOGUE in 1904 was 82. After its publication, as far as
could be gathered from Zoological Records and other publications in
the Library of the Society, about 55 additional Indian species have been
described by various systematists in different journals making a total of
137 Indian species. Of these, 28 species from India and six more from
neighbouring areas have been identified in our collection. The latter are
listed only for record. More than half of these species, i.e. 19 species,
belong to the family Mantidae which is the biggest family of this sub-
order. The other families are represented by one to. four species each,
while we have no specimens of the family Orthoderidae.

Order: DIC TYOPTERA

Sub-Order: MANTODAE

Family : AMORPHOSCELIDAE

1. Amorphoscelis sp. 1 1: collected at Andheri (Bombay) in 1941.
Two species of this genus have been recorded before, A. annulicornis
Stal. in Assam (23)? and on the Indian mainland (17), and A. indica
G.T. at Dehra Dun (17). °

Family : EREMIAPHILIDAE

2. Humbertiella sp. 8 0", 7 2: collected from Nasik, Bombay,
Panchgani; Belgaum, Castle Rock, Gersoppa, and Mercara. Previous
records: H. indica Sauss. in India, H. septentrionum Wood-Mason in
Assam and Travancore (7), H. ceylonica Sauss. at Haldwani in the
United Provinces, and Chinchchawatni in west Punjab (18), and H. similis
G. T. in Nepal (5). H. nigrospinosa Sjo. is mentioned as Indian in Ark.
Zool. 21A, No. 32, 1930.

3. Didymocorypha lanceolata (Fab.) 1 3%, 1 9, 1 nymph: collected
in Karachi in 1903. This species was described as D. ensifera W.-M. (23)
and is recorded from Tin Phar on the eastern flanks of the Rajmahal
Hills, Bengal ; Ceylon ; and Kulu and Kangra in the NW. Himalayas.
It is also known from Dehra Dun and Raipur in the Central Provinces
‘(now Madhya Pradesh) (18).

4. Dysaules himalayanus Wood-Mason 2 J: collected at
Andheri (Bombay) in 1934 and Khandala in 1941. It was earlier descri-

* Including Pakistan, but excluding Burma and Ceylon.
* The numbers within brackets indicate references at the end of this paper. —

78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

bed under the specific name Jongicollis and the range was given as the
NW. Himalayas, Quetta, Kulu, Kangra, and Bengal (23). Other distri-
bution shown is NW. India and Quetta (7), Dehra Dun and Haldwani in
the United Provinces (18), and Rahtagaon and Hoshangabad in the
Central Provinces (19). :

Family : MANTIDAE

5. Hierodula tenuidentata Sauss. 3%, 729: collected in Bombay
and Panchgani in 1913, 1915, 1926, and 1932-33. This species has
been collected in Malabar (India) and Borneo (7) under the name
Sphodromantis tenuidentata Sauss.

6. Hierodula coarctata Sauss. 1 : collected in Bombay in 1911.
Its habitat has been recorded as India and Australia (7). Lefroy notes
it as a familiar insect all over India (6).

7. Hierodula unimaculata (Oliver) — 3 4: collected in Bombay-
Salsette in 1910, 1926, and 1940. This species has been noted from
Coromandel, Bombay ; and from Tonkin (7) and Ceylon (21). ?

8. Rhombodera woodmasoni Werner 12: collected in 1916 at
Nagarcoil, Madras State. Previously this was recorded at Nilambur,
Kerala State (17). :

9. Mantis religiosa L. Two specimens one collected in 1916 at
Amara, Mesopotamia, the other in India (locality not stated). Its
habitat is given as southern and central Europe, NW. Asia, and N.
Africa (7). :

10. Acromantis sp. Only one specimen, without any data. Pre-
viously a species of this genus, A. oligoneura Haan, has been recorded
in India (7).

11. Deiphobe infuscata (Sauss.) 3,1 2: collected in 1910 at
Nagargali and Yellapur of Bombay Karnatak (now Mysore State).
Previously recorded from Balaghat in the Central Provinces (now
Madhya Pradesh) (18) and from Mussoorie and Dehra Dun in the United
Provinces (19).

12. Deiphobe indica Giglio-Tos 1 #: collected at Nirwan (Kutch)
1935. Giglio-Tos in Bull. Soc. ent. Ital, 47 (1916) does not give its
habitat. Species of this genus, however, have been noted all over India.

13. Deiphobesp. 3 specimens: one collected at Kotagiri in the
Nilgiris in 1916, another in Mesopotamia in 1916, and the third at
Panchgani in 1932-33.

MANTIDS AND TETTIGONIDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION 179

14. Schizocephalus bicornis (L.) 2 7: collected in 1915 and 1935
at Andheri (Bombay). Previously recorded from Africa, India, and
China (7).

15. Ambivia popa Stal. 1%, 2 G2: collected in 1938 at Andheri
and in the Naga Hills in 1941. Its habitat is given as India (7). Werner
collected all his specimens from Dehra Dun (18 and 19).

16. Phyllothelys westwoodi (Wood-Mason) 1 @: collected in 1936
at Andheri (Bombay). Previously recorded from Naga Hills and Bhutan
(7), and from Dehra Dun (17).

17. Amantis sp. Three specimens, two collected in 1934 at
Andheri (Bombay) and one in Coorg (S. India) in 1916. Two species of
this genus A. subirina G. T. from Assam and A. indica G. T. from India
have been previously mentioned (5). Another species, A. aliena Beier, is
recorded from Tenasserim (Burma) (2).

18. Elmantis trincomaliae (Sauss.) 1 : collected at Deolali in
1915. It was previously noted only in Ceylon (5).

19. Leptomentella sp. There is only one specimen without any data.
~The generic name Leptomantis G. T. has been changed to Leptomentella
(15), as the former was preoccupied. Two species of Leptomantis have
been recorded in India before, L. indica G. T. in Assam (16) and L.
parva Werner at Dehra Dun (18). .

Family : HYMENOPODIDAE

20. Ephistiasula pictipes (Wood-Mason) 3 61.1: collected at Santa
Cruz in 1912 and at Andheri (Bombay) in 1936. It was previously re-
corded from Dehra Dun (19).

21. Creoboter gemmatus (Stoll) 1 o, 3 98: collected in N.
Kanara in 1928 and at Santa Cruz (Bombay) in 1912. Its habitat is re-
corded as America and Java (7). Speciesof Creoboter found in India
are : C. elongata Beier in Sikkim, C. arbana Fab. in Dehra Dun (United
Provinces) (10), and C. apicalis Sauss. in Mangalore (old Madras Presi-
dency), and Bengal (17 and 19).

22. Hymenopus coronatus (Oliver) 12: collected at Chippendale,
Simla, in 1909. Its habitat is given as Assam, Moluccas, and Sunda
Islands under the name H. bicornis W.-M. (21). It is also noted from
Sikkim, Java, and Sarawak (1).

23. Evantissa pulchra (Fab.) (= Antissa pulchra F.) 1 of, 1 Q:
collected in Karachi in 1905. The habitat of this species is recorded
as: ‘India, Ceylon. (Cape, errore ?)’ (7). There is a reference by
A. P. Mathew to this species in Trivandrum (9),

F ~

80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

Family : TOXODERIDAE

24. Paradanuria sp. 2 6: one of these was collected at
Bandra (Bombay) in 1912 and the other at Andheri (Bombay) in 1939.
Its distribution is recorded as Indian sub-region of the Oriental region
(24). The only Indian species, known as P. orientalis W.-M., was
collected from Bangalore, Mysore (24).

Family: VATIDAE

25. Aethalochroa ashmoliana (Westwood) 4 SS, 12: two collect-
ed in Bombay once in 1912 and at Andheri again in 1937 and three at
Panchgani in 1932. It is recorded from Bombay and N. India (7). It
has also been recorded from Madras and Ceylon (20) and from Bengal,
United Provinces, etc. (16, 21).

Family : EMPUSIDAE

26. Gongylus gongylodes (L.) 2 ", 1 Q: one collected in Thana
Hills in 1928, the second at Mt. Abu in 1940, and the third at Bhyander
in Thana District in 1937. Its habitat is given as India and Ceylon
(7).

27. Empusa pauperata (Fab.) 1 <1: collected at Nasik in 1914.
Its habitat is given as India and Ceylon (7). |

28. Blepharopsis mendica (Fab.) 2 do, 1 2: two collected in
Karachi in 1905 and 1907 and the third at Amara, Mesopotamia, in
1916. Its habitat is known to be N. Africa and west Asia (7 and 12).

Along with the 28 species enumerated above, there are six more
collected from the neighbouring countries. They are:

EREMIAPHILIDAE

(1) Eremiaphila cerisyi Lef. : collected at Muscat in 1918 -

MANTIDAE

(2) Rhombodera valida Burm.: collected at Azahar, Malacca, in
1913

(3) Fischeria baetica Ramb. (damaged to some extent): collected
at Mesopotamia in 1916

(4) Deroplatys truncata (Guerin) : collected at Singapore in 1913

(5) Phyllocrania paradoxa Burm. : collected in Nairobi (Kenya).

EMPUSIDAE

(6) Empusa fasciata Brull. : collected at Abadeh (Persia) in 1916, _.

MANTIDS AND TETTIGONIDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION 81
TETTIGONIDS — LONGHORNED GRASSHOPPERS

Great strides have been made in the study of Tettigoniidae in the
world but India has remained far behind. Kirby (8) mentioned 3161
species in his catalogue of Tettigoniidae of the world; of these only 150,
less than 5% of the total, were Indian. Since then the total number has
risen to more than 4000, while only about 29 new species have been
added to the family in India, raising our total to 179. We have in our
collection only a few, as catalogued below. All of them were identified
by B. P. Uvarov. They are also arranged below family-wise as in the
case of Mantids. The non-Indian species have been listed only for
record,

Order ORTHOPTERA

Family : TETTIGONIIDAE — LOCUSTIDAE

Sub-family : CONOCEPHALLINAE

1. Conocephallus indicus Redt. Three specimens: collected one
each at Belgaum in 1910, Berars in 1913, and Panchgani in 1932. Its
habitat is recorded as India, China, Java, etc. (8).

Sub-family : PSEUDOPHYLLINAE

2. Morsimus carinatus Walk. Two specimens: collected in
Bombay in 1918. Its habitat is mentioned as India and Ceylon (8).
Uvarov has recorded its habitat as Bombay and criticises Kirby’s
nomenclature in this regard (13). He writes: ‘ Kirby in his CATALOGUE
has quite incorrectly regarded carinatus Walk. as distinct from curvifrons
Walk. since the types of both species are undoubtedly conspecific ; on
the other hand he was quite wrong in synonymising A. gracile Walk. and
A. oculatum Sauss. & Pict. with M. carinatus.’ The generic name
Morsimus was changed recently to Paramorsimus (4).

3. Sathrophyllia rugosa Linn. Eight specimens: collected in
Andheri (1908), Coorg (1920), Nasik (1938), and Deolali (1940). ‘Its
habitat is mentioned as India and Ceylon (8).

4, Sanna imperialis Wh. Four specimens : collected in Sikkim in
1912-1914. Its habitat is recorded as N. India (8).

5. Callimenellus opacus Br. Two specimens: collected at Khan-
dala in 1940. The habitat of this species is recorded as Tenasserim (8).
Another species of this genus, C. apterus Beier, however, is recorded as
Indian (3).

82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. -62 (i)
Sub-family : MECOPODINAE

6. Mecopoda elongata Linn. Eight specimens: collected in
Bombay in 1936 and in Goa in 1938. Its habitat is recorded as China,
Japan, India, Malacca, Malaya, Moluccas, and Australia (8). This is
an extremely common grasshopper round about Bombay, appearing
every year at the end of October and hovering round the street ae at
nightfall.

Sub-family : PHANEROPTERINAE

7. Ducetia japonica Stall. Five specimens: collected at Nasik in
1913 and Bombay in 1938 and 1939. There is one specimen without
any data and identified by B. P. Uvarov as Ducetia thymifolia Fab.
which is a synonym. Its habitat is known as India, Ceylon, Japan,

Java, Borneo, the Philippines, Cambodia, and Australia (8)..

8. Trigonocorypha unicolor Stall.

Eight specimens: collected in

Bombay in 1940. India and Java are mentioned as its habitat (8).

- 9; Elimaea securigera Brunn.

Three specimens : collected at

Madurai in 1917 and Bombay in 1938. Its habitat as noted are N. India

and Ceylon (8).

Two more species were collected from outside India.
They are:

to the sub-family Decticinae.
(1) Decticus albifrons Fab. :
(2) Decticus assimilis Fieb. :

Both belong

collected in Mesopotamia in 1916.
collected at Bandamir in 1920. ”

REFERENCES

1. ANNANDALE, N. (1900): Obser-
vations on the habits and natural
surroundings of insects made during the
‘ Skeat Expedition’ to the Malay Penin-
sula, 1899-1900. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. :
837-869.

2. Beer, M. (1930) : New and rare
Mantodea (Orthoptera) in the British
Museum. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (10) 6:
432-460.

*3, ——— (1944) : Stettin. ent. Ztg. :

105.
. ——— (1954) :

pone

*5. GiGuio-Tos, E. (1916) : Bull. Soc.
ent. Ital. 46.

6. Lerroy, H. M. (1909) :
Insect Life : 69.

7. Kuirpy, W. F. (1904) : A Syn. Cat.
Orth. 1.

8. ——— (1906): ditto. 2.

Rev. der Pseu-

Indian

9. MatHew, A. P. (1935) : Trans-

formational deceptive resemblance as

seen in the life history of a plant bug
(Riptortus pedestris) and of a mantis
(Evantissa pulchra). J. Bombay nat. Hist. '
Soc. 37 : 803-813.

10. MATHUR, R. N. (1934): Ind.
For. Rec. 20 (3).

#11. Uvarov, B. P. (1912) : Rev. Russ.
ent. 12.

12. ——— (1922): Records and des-
criptions of Orthoptera from SW. Asia.

“Ss ene nat. Hist. Soc. 28 : 719-738.

——— (1923): Some new of
interesting Orthoptera from Persia, Balu-

chistan, and western India. ibid. 29:
643-652.
14. ——— (1927): Some Orthoptera

of the families Mantidae, Tettigoniidae
and Acrididae from Ceylon. are a
Zelan. 14: 85-114.

MANTIDS AND TETTIGONIDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION _ 83

15. Uvarov, B. P. (1940) : Twenty-
eight new generic names in Orthoptera.
Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (11) 5: 173-176.

16. WERNER, F. (1930) : Indian Man-
tids or Praying Insects. Proc. zool. Soc.
Lond. : 689-690.

17. ——— (1931): Further notes on
Indian Mantids or Praying Insects.
i bid. : 329-334.

18. ——— (1933) : Third contri-
bution to the knowledge of [ndian Man-

tids, or Praying Insects. ibid. : 897-901...

19. ——-— (1935) : Further communi-
cation on Indian Mantids or Praying
Insects. ibid. : 494-498.

*20. Westwoop, J.O. (1841) : Ann,
Mag. nat. Hist. (1) 8.

21. Woop-Mason, J. (1878): Notes
on new and little-known Mantidae. Ann.
Mag. nat. Hist. (5) 1: 143-147.

22. ——— (1878) : On new and little
known Mantidae. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond.:
580-587.

23. —-—— (1882) : On new and little
ee Mantodea. J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. :
21-36.

24. ——— (1889): The Ethiopian
and Oriental representatives of the
Mantodean subfamily Vatidae. ibid. :
306-326.

Note. No direct access could be had to the references marked with an asterisk.
They have been noted either through their reviews or from quotations from other

sources,

mA
au Se
NS aes

On the Marine Fauna of the
Gulf of Kutch

Part [iIT—PELECYPODS

H. L. Kunbu

Department of Zoology, Birla Institute of T cena & Science, Pilani
3 (Rajasthan)

[Continued from Vol. 58 (2) : 494]

(With fifteen plates)

lL “INTRODUCTION

Hornell in 1916 gave a general account of the marine fauna of Okha
Mandal. In 1957 Gideon et al. published a preliminary survey of
marine fauna of the Gulf of Kutch (Part I), followed by Menon ef al.
in 1961 with an account of the Gastropods (Part II). Here I present
an account of the Pelecypods (Part III).

The present account gives short descriptions of all the species of
bivalves collected by me and my colleagues from the Gulf of Kutch.
1 hope that the account will be useful to shore collectors and that
the re-descriptions of known species along with their diagrams will be
useful to other workers.

II. AREAS SURVEYED

Shells were mainly collected from the different localities of Pirotan
Island as well as Port Okha, Belarpur Bay, Hanuman Dandi, and
Veraval (for map, see Gideon ef al. 1957). Collections were made
at low tide in the autumn months from 1956 till 1963, from the intertidal
zones as well as from places with knee-deep water at low tide. Live
specimens were narcotised with chloral hydrate solution (in sea-water)
and then preserved in either 5% formalin or 70% alcohol. _ However.
most, of the collection consists of dry shells. ce ae

[38]

Journ. BoMBAy Nat. Hist. Soc. Prare f

— Radial Lines

Circular Lines

Lunule

Lateral Tooth Umbo

Ligament Groove
‘Cardinal Teeth

sla}

Post, Adductor °°
mopression

oes ecm en

Ant. Adductor
Impression

Salient features of a Pelecypod Shell (one valve)
Fig. la. top view (schematic); Fig. 1b. lateral view (from inside)

Journ. BomsBAy Nat. Hist. Soc.

;
5

aa ~
Si
a
ss ~
zal oe
s — = a
WS es ie
WS —— Gis zZ
Vaan eo -
\ ~ i = al
NOLS Se a
\ \ a (LA a
| c
y
h | 2 td
! /
/

ao ee

Ere We
RI

VOUT) Sd
1° a eR

Figs. 2a, 2b. Arca gubernaculum: outer and inner views respectively ;
Figs. 3a, 3b. Arca granosa : outer and inner views respectively ;
Figs. 4a, 4b. Arca rhombea: outer and inner views respectively

_MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH—III 85

III. DESCRIPTION OF A TYPICAL PELECYPOD SHELL

The shells of pelecypods consist of two units or valves, which mostly
envelop the soft viscera and are joined to each other by a ligament in
the dorsal aspect of the valves, the hinge (Plate I, figs. la and 1b).
Upon the outer aspect of the hinge there is a pointed and raised area
the umbo or apex. Besides the ligament in the area of the hinge, there
are some teeth. The teeth directly under the umbo are called
cardinal teeth, the outer ones the lateral teeth. The umbo is directed
forwards and the ligament is situated posterior to the umbo. Inside the
valves there are two prominent impressions, the scars of the anterior
and the posterior adductor muscles. A pallial line connects these scars.
Along this line the mantle is attached to the valves. In many species,
beneath the posterior adductor impression the pallial line forms a deep
bay, the pallial sinus. Siphons when retracted are housed within this
sinus. The pallial sinus is always associated with the posterior
adductor scar, whereas the face of the umbo is always directed
forwards. Thus it is easy to determine the face and the side of
a valve. Except in the Donacidae, the anterior sides of most species

‘are shorter than the posterior sides. The lunule and the area are the

two somewhat flattened areas, respectively, in the front and the aft of

“the umbo. Most shells when fresh are covered with a brownish horny

envelope, the periostracum, which on drying tends to peel off.

IV. MEASUREMENTS

4
The following measurements have been used in this paper (Plate I):
1. the axis of the valve: the line connecting the centres of the

adductor impressions;

2. the length of the valve: the longest distance measured along
a line parallel to the axis;

3. the height of the valve: the maximum width measured along
a line at right angles to the axis;

4. the depth of the valve: half of the maximum thickness when
both the valves are tightly fitted and closed together:

5. the weight of the valve: dry weight of one valve.

However, for Ostrea and Pinctada the hinge was taken as the axis,
and in the case of Placenta only the diameter was measured. The
measurements 2 to 4 were taken with a slide calliper fitted with a
vernier scale and the measurement 5 with an automatic air-damped

[39]

86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

balance. For certain recordings (see Meretrix: General Discussion)
a travelling microscope was used.

The actual measurements of the shells drawn as well as the range
of measurements found in each species (in our collection) have been
given. All the measurements along with the number of the specimens
studied are presented in a tabular form (Table V).

All the diagrams were drawn by the author except Nos. 36a, 27, 40,
48, 53b, 60b, and 64a, which were stippled by Professor A. K. Datta
Gupta.

V. DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES

Generally Thiele’s classification ( 1935), as followed by Satyamurt
122°); has been adopted here.

Family ArcipsAE (Ark shells)

Members of this family are characterized by the possession of a
straight hinge beset with numerous teeth. The family consists of only
two genera Arca and Barbatia.

Genus Arca Linné

Eleven species of Arca have been recorded from the Gulf of Kutch
some of which are not recorded from Krusadai (Satyamurti 1956).
Arca granecsa, the so-called Common Indian Arca, is not very common
here; instead Arca gubernaculum is more common.

1. Arca gubernaculum Reeve. Plate II, figs. 2a, 2b

Valves thick, heavy, and elongately ovate; postero-ventral angle
acute; antero-ventral angle broadly obtuse; outer surface covered with
strong broad ribs and deep interstices.

Hanuman Dandi, Pirotan Island.

2. Arca granosa Lamarck. Plate II, figs. 3a, 3b

Rare. Only one left valve was found. Shell very thick with strong
ribs marked in the outer side with tubercle-like grains formed by con-
centric ridges. In young shells the ribs are as broad as the interstices,
which however become broader than the ribs in the larger shells
(obtained from other parts of India). According to Hornell (1951)
this species is widely distributed in backwaters and estuaries. The outer
surface of the valve is tinted bluish grey.

Pirotan Island.

[40]

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc.

PLATE III

DUP VPA vw \\

Pe ae EZ
Co ee
~ eS re oo +

Ss Se

HANA
TITAS

AKAN

Figs. 5a, 5b. Arca inaequivalvis: outer and inner views respectively ;
Figs. 6a, 6b. Arca tortuosa: outer and inner views respectively ;

Figs. 7a, 7b. Arca symmetrica: outer and inner views respectively ;
Figs. 8a, 8b

Arca navicularis : outer and inner views respectively

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE IV

Figs. 9a, 9b. Arca avellana: outer and inner views res-
pectively; Figs. 10a, 10b. Arca fusca: outer and inner
views respectively; Figs. lla, 11b. Arca complanata:
outer and inner views respectively; Figs. 12a, 12b. Arca
bistrigata (grown up shell): outer and inner views respec-
tively; Figs. 12c, 12d. Arca bistrigata (young shell):
outer and inner views respectively; Figs. 13a, 13b
Barbatia obliquata: outer and inner views respectively ;
Figs. 14a, 14b. Glycimeris taylori: outer and inner
views respectively

MARINE.FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH—III 87

3. Arca rhombea Born. Plate II, figs. 4a, 4b

Valve rhomboidal, very thick, with prominently raised umbones
and well-angulated margins. The length and the height are very nearly
equal.

Pirotan Island.

4, Arca inaequivalvis Bruguiére. Plate III, figs. Sa, 5b

Valve inequivalve (i.e. the umbo is placed in front of the middle),
and tinted light yellowish brown; ribs distinct and shallow and, owing
to the thinness of the valves, show up on the inner surface too. Hinge
7 margins angular but the outer margins broadly rounded.
Pirotan Island.

5. Arca tortuosa Linné. Plate III, figs. 6a, 6b

Shell thin and is easily recognizable by its remarkably tortuous
nature. Axis of the hinge and axis of the outer rim twisted against
each other at an angle of 30 degrees or so; outer surface covered with
fine ribs. There may also be a few but distinct concentric lines of
growth. Shell whitish with a tinge of rust-brown near the umbones.
Arca tortuosa is so twisted that it is difficult to measure the depth of
the shell. Rare in the interior of the Gulf, but very common at Veraval.

Veraval. \

6. Arca symmetrica Reeve. Plate III, figs. 7a, 7b

Small; mostly found cast up alive on the beach by the waves, with
valves tightly closed. Hinge axis and outer axis parallel to each other;
posterior margin obliquely truncated and anterior margin rounded:
umbones raised and directed inwards; outer surface covered with fine
radiating ribs crossed by infrequent concentric rings. The surface of
most living shells is covered with a thin brownish periostracum. <A
very common shell at Veraval.

Veraval.

7. Arca navicularis Bruguiére. Plate III, figs. 8a, 8b

Shell stout; yellowish with inside face rather like a parallelogram;
ventral margin somewhat incurved and outer margin more or less
truncate; umbones set widely apart, the area between them broad and
diamond-shaped with a few grooves radiating from the umbores io
the hinge. Ribs distinct but shallow and become progressively faint |
towards the umbones. There are a few concentric growth lines as well.
This species 1s uncommon and is not listed by Hornell (1951), Gravely
(1941), and Satyamurti (1956). |

Pirotan Island.
[41]

88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

8. Arca avellana Lamarck. Plate IV, figs. 9a, 9b

Shell long and broad with angulated hinge corners; outer margin
uneven with a depression in the middle; umbones raised and directed
inwards with a broad diamond-shaped space in between them; a strong
keel from the umbone to the posterior corner of the valve. Surface
covered with fine radiating lines crossed by a few concentric rings. The
outer surface is finely tuberculate and there are brownish patches
especially at the posterior corner. Very common in Veraval.

Veraval.

9. Arca fusca Bruguiére. Plate IV, figs. 10a, 10b

The shell is fairly common and can be easily recognized by the
white interior, the dark exterior surfaces and three white streaks
radiating from the umbones, which are placed almost at the anterior
end of the hinge line. All the angles are rounded off and the fine
concentric rings intersect the radiating ribs so regularly that the ribs
look like beaded lines. The outer hinge teeth are directed somewhat
outwards. In the inside of fresh specimens one can discern fine
impressions of radiating lines fanning out from the umbones up to the
pallial line.

Pirotan Island.

10. Arca complanata Chemnitz. Plate IV, figs. lla, 11b

Shell ovately oblong; when fresh the outside is brownish white and
traversed by fine radiating lines which split up into two in the
periphery. Umbones placed forwards; hinge margin angulated; lower
margin of the valve somewhat indented in the middle; area between
the umbones brownish and marked with fine wide V-shaped grooves
the apices of which are directed towards the umbones.

Pirotan Island.

11. Arca bistrigata Dunker. Plate IV, figs. 12a-12d

Shell longer than high with corners rounded off; umbones placed
rather anteriorly and approximate each other closely. Ribs shallow
but distinct and split into two near the periphery. Faint but close
concentric lines make the ribs appear thinly beaded. Valve light
yellowish brown in colour. (Figs. 12a, 12b)

Very young shells of this species differ conspicuously from the adult
shell. A young shell (for measurements, see Table V) is characterized
by the possession of a hinge line longer than the ventral margin and
the hinge corners are angulated while the other corners are rounded

[42]

MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH—III 89

off. The body is light yellow but the umbo has a deep yellow radiat-
ing band. (Figs. 12c, 12d)
Veraval.

Genus Barbatia Gray

Hinge teeth are arranged obliquely appearing to radiate outwards
from the axis of the valve. End teeth of the hinge line are prominent,
but teeth in the middle of the hinge (near the umbo) are extremely
small.

12. Barbatia obliquata Gray. Plate IV, figs. 13a, 13b

Shell smooth, elongated, bean-shaped with anterior end narrower
than the posterior; antero-ventral surface somewhat indented giving
the shell an oblique shape with the radial lines on outer surface very
faint and the concentric growth rings very deep (a feature not seen in
other species of Arcidae). Shell white with a tinge of dark brown on the
posterior side of the umbo. Fresh shells covered with a thin dark
periostracum which peels off on drying. The impression of the pallial
line is faint although the adductor impressions are prominent.

Pirotan Island.

Family GLYCIMERIDAE

The hinge has a curved margin. The median teeth upon the hinge
are either absent or very reduced and the outer teeth are oblique.

.. Genus Glycimeris Da Costa

13. Glycimeris taylori (Angas). Plate IV, figs. 14a, 14b

The shell can be easily recognized by the bent hinge line which
looks like a very wide V, white colour, and almost round outline.
From the umbo which is in the centre of the V, faint and smooth lines
radiate out. Jn the inner side there are two shallow but distinct keels
which radiate from the umbo and run by the outer sides of the adductor
scars. The shell is smooth with specks of brown on the rim.

Pirotan Island.

Family MYTILIDAE (Mussels and Date shells)

In this family the shell is extremely inequilateral and the anterior
adductor is feebly developed and in some cases altogether lacking.
[43]

‘90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

Genus Mytilus Linné
The shells are acuminate with terminal umbones.

14. Mytilus viridis Linné, Plate V, figs. 15a, 15b

Shell brownish green outside with a thin pearly layer inside.
Broadly conical in outline with the pointed end denoting the anterior
end and the base the posterior end. When alive can be easily re-
cognized by its brilliant green colour (hence also known as Green
Mussel). Used as food in some parts of India.

Pirotan Island.

Genus Modiolus Lamarck

The anterior edge is rather blunt and the umbones are sub-terminal
(i.e. somewhat behind the terminus). There is a somewhat shallow
keel running from the umbo to the ventral hind corner of the valve.

15. Modiolus metcalfei (Henley). Plate V, figs. 16a, 16b

Shell moderately light with a thin dark brown periostracum; inside
pearly but the thinness of the shell and the presence of the periostracum
give it a bluish tinge; ventral margin slightly incurved; aft of the shell
covered with fine hairy growth and fine and close concentric markings
upon the uncovered portion of the periostracum. According to Horneil
(1951) such hairy growths are noticed in a few other species of
Modiolus and, in ‘Gulf of Mannar, the hairy growth of Modiolus
barbatus forms a carpet of tangled mass on the sea-bottom.

Pirotan Island. te Bey

Genus Septifer Récluz

Members of this genus are characterized by the presence of a
terminal umbo and a calcareous plate in the anterior internal angle,
to which the adductor muscle is attached. |

16. Septifer bilocularis (Linn¢). Plate V, figs. 17a, 17b

Shell broadly triangular with outer surface orange in colour and
inside white. The orange hue is somewhat faded in the anterior end
as well as the antero-ventral surface, which is also somewhat flattened.
Internally the anterior angle has a shallow place for the attachment of
the adductor muscle. The surface is marked with beautiful radial

[44]

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc. PLATE V

LEP IRER II 8
PA 7 Yigore SSIS,
: y eS

G Red
LTE Sf “ ‘ SF
ik 4 H 4 y

Figs. 15a, 15b. Mytilus viridis : outer and inner views respectively ;
Figs. 16a, 16b. Modiolus metcalfei: outer and inner views respectively ;
Figs. 17a, 17b. Septifer bilocularis : outer and inner views respectively ;
Figs. 18a, 18b. Lithophaga cinnamomea : lateral and dorsal views respec-

tively ; Figs. 19a, 19b. Lithophaga sp. (near cinnamomea) : lateral and
dorsal views respectively

PLATE VI

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIsT. Soc.

'
a "1;
yar) ale

Ha tee if

! ! tq
OOO8
HM oO
=
AN DW
a
OUo» w&
ort ort oy 6
Pro Ss
nA
oe 2s
O83 6 2
DwUIUga
MONO} = (ts
Eas
sess
— Hs O
Soc. =
Bene
88S
8
2.09 ene 50
eons
VY x SOS
~ OD
Vw Re
L3seu
gees
Sess
2 oa
oS
SNA,
bo ra)
8 S OM
LO 0N
Qan
SNA a
ies n ape
™— oa
N
m= AN
aoe
Ae}
Soe
CE ie
a
ODO *8 ean en
NAA D
Ss —— =
ao OO
0.4.2
pel Sey ee ee
ao o-oo
oo WO
a0,

respectively

MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH—IIl ~~ 91

lines which spread out like a fan from an approximate median antero-
posterior axis. According to Satyamurti (1956) Septifer bilocularis
is widely distributed in the Indo-Pacific region. However, in the Gulf
of Kutch this species is rare. |

Veraval. ;

Genus Lithophaga (Bolten) Rdoding

(syn. Lithodomus)

These shells are commonly known as ‘Date shells’ as many of
them resemble date seeds, being cylindrical or sub-cylindrical
in shape and light or deep chestnut-brown in colour. The
umbo is terminal or just sub-terminal. When fresh the shells are
covered with a thin pellicle of periostracum which on drying peels off.
The sculpturing upon the periostracum is of taxonomic value. Hence
Lithophagans should be preserved in 5% formalin or 70% alcohol.

Lithophaga of our collection fall into two distinct categories. The
first group is characterized by ultra-terminal umbones and lack of
perpendicular striations upon the ventral side of the valves whereas,
in the second group, the umbone is infra-terminal (i.e. sub-terminal)
and the perpendicular striations are present upon the ventral side of
the valve. Satyamurti (1956) mentions only Lithophaga of the second
type. It may be mentioned, however, that the fine striations are easy
to see when the periostracum is intact.

17. Lithophaga cinnamomea (Lamarck). Plate V, figs. 18a, 18b

Shell easily recognized by its rather extraordinarily short and inflated
nature (length: height ratio=2:2 and height:depth ratio=1-6). Ventral
edge definitely incurved, giving a somewhat bean-like side view:
umbones ultra-terminal, jutting out in such a way that the anterior
end appears truncated. Owing to its shortness and great depth
the shell has a rather gorged appearance. The species is
represented by a single shell with the periostracum mostly peeled off.
There are deep and strongly pronounced concentric rings upon the
valves. Perpendicular striations are absent in the remnants of the
periostracum. |

Pirotan Island.

[45]

92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

18. Lithophaga sp. (near cinnamomea)’. Plate V, figs. 19a, 19b

This species of which I have only one specimen resembles
cinnamomea in shape, except that it is longer and less deep. The
umbones are ultra-terminal and in lateral view the shell looks somewhat
arched. Unfortunately the periostracum has peeled and the remnants
of it do not show the presence of any cross-striation. The hind end
of this shell tapers off and does not present the rotund look of L.
cinnamomea when viewed from above. Concentric rings are present.
These rings are more pronounced towards the posterior than the
anterior end.

Pirotan Island.

19. Lithophaga sp. (near teres). Plate VI, figs. 20a, 20b

The shell appears sleeker than the preceding one and its posterior
end tapers off gradually. Umbo ultra-terminal. This specimen has
an intact chocolate-brown periostracum without cross-striations.
Regular concentric rings occur and, towards the hind end, are deep
and distinct. In the middle of the hinge line there is a faint but
distinct angulation.

Pirotan Island.

20. Lithophaga teres (Philippi). Plate VI, figs. 21a, 21b

Shell lanceolate, light brown, with infra-terminal (i.e. sub-terminal)
umbones, and numerous fine perpendicular cross-striations on the
antero-ventral surface. Concentric rings present but not so deep as
in preceding ones. Distinct angulation in the middle of hinge line.

Pirotan Island.

21. Lithophaga nigra (d’ Orbigny). Plate VI, figs. 22a, 22b

Shell dark chocolate-brown and more elongated than teres. Cross-
striations deeper but concentric rings fainter than in teres; umbo
infra-terminal; sharp and distinct angulation almost in middle of dorsal
hinge line. Of the many specimens of this species in our collection
the largest, a broken one, is 73 mm. long and 18 mm. high.

Pirotan Island.

1 Dr. S. T. Satyamurti, Superintendent, Government Museum, Madras, has
tentatively identified serial No 18 as near L. cinnamomea and 19 as near L. teres.
However, as these shells are not represented in his collection, he could not be very
certain about their identification (1964). Certain aspects of the external morphology

of Lithophagan shells have been further discussed in the section ‘ General
Discussion ’.

[46]

MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH—IIl 93

Family PTERIIDAE (Pearl Oysters and Wing Shells)

This family includes such well-known forms as_ pearl-oysters
(Pinctada sp.) and wing-shells (Pteria sp.). The hinge is toothless and
straight. The left valve is more inflated than the right. The outer
surface tends to be scaly.

Genus Pinctada (Bolten) Roding

The shell is nearly an equivalve and the height and the length are
almost the same.

22. Pinctada vulgaris (Schumacher). Plate VI, figs. 23a, 23b
Shell broadly squarish with a tubercle-like ridge at about ith
distance from the anterior end; ventral surface laminated and greenish
brown. The laminae indicate the lines of growth. Common in the
low tide areas of Pirotan Island under about 1 foot of water. Inside,
this shell has a pearly lustre.
Pirotan Island.

Family PINNIDAE (Feather Shells)

The family is well represented at Pirotan Island and specimens are
frequently found in the low-tide areas in 6 to 12 inches of water, with
3th of their anterior end sunk vertically in sand. The shells are like
large triangular fans, with the anterior end pointed. Hinge straight
and long, byssus well developed: anterior adductor muscle small and
situated almost at the tip; posterior adductor muscle large and situated
near the middle of the hinge line.

Genus Pinna Linne

The characters are same as those of the family.

23. Pinna bicolor Gmelin. Plate VII, figs. 24a, 24b

Very common in Pirotan Island. Shell comparatively light and
covered with thin light brown periostracum which, in young specimens,
scaly in appearance. The scales are raised in medial lines. These shells
are characterized by the presence of some distinct, wide blackish brown
radial shades. Internally, the moieties of the nacreous layer are
separated by a somewhat wide tract in the middle.

Pirotan Island.

_ 24, Pinna atropurpurea Sowerby. Plate VII, figs. 25a, 25b
Shell heavier and darker than that of bicolor. Radial shades either
absent or indistinct. Dark blotches scattered all over the shell,

[47]

| 94. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

especially towards ventral end; inside of ventral end covered with thin
non-glossy white layer. The two moieties of the nacreous layer are
separated by a narrow line in the middle. The periostracum is a bit
thick. This species is less common than P. bicolor but frequently
attains a larger size than it.

Pirotan Island.

Family PECTINIDAE (Scallops)
These are characterized by a rather long hinge, lack of true hinge-

teeth, and a medial ligament which is often placed in a triangular
groove upon the hinge. Radial ribs or folds are common. |

Genus Pecten (Klein) Osbeck

Valves roundish with a tendency to flatten out; auricles (the ear-
like lobes upon the ends of hinge line) well developed.

25. Pecten tranquebaricus (Gmelin). Plate VII, figs. 26a, 26b

A beautiful shell with some broad reddish brown bands. Radial
ribs well developed and anterior auricle longer than posterior. Almost
equivalve (i.e. the umbo is in the middle of the BE line).

Pirotan Island. , |

--26.. Pecten distans Tere Plate VIL, figs. 27a, 27

Shell flat, nearly equivalve, and auricles prominent. There are
11 ribs, both ribs and grooves being equally wide. Ribs finely cross-
ridged and regular brown spots on ribs” and furrows..

Veraval.

27. Pecten crassicostatus Sowerby. Plate VIII, figs. 28a, 28b

Sheil an equivalve, but anterior auricle longer than posterior.
Posterior angle short but wide and forming an obtuse angle with, rim.
Upon anterior ¥im, within angle formed - by jutting out-of anterior
auricle, 4 to 5 fine denticles. Surface of shell rather inflated and

smooth, and about 28 main ribs and interstices. ‘Towards periphery, |

main ribs have faint medial furrows which make them look composite.
Upon the surface there are light reddish brown circular patches.
Pirotan Island.

28. Pecten pyxidatus (Born). Plate VIII, figs. 29a, 29b

Shell dark with smooth surface. but deep radial grooves and wide
interstices. General colour dark green, very nearly like slate, -and
outline almost round. The ibs show up internally as well. |

Pirotan Island. ORen

[48]

Journ. BomMBAy NAT. HIsT. Soc. | PLATE VII

a ane aa

3!
oe

Figs. 24a, 24b. Pinna bicolor: outer and inner views respectively ;
Figs. 25a, 25b. Pinna atropurpurea : outer and inner views respecti-
vely; Figs. 26a, 26b. Pecten tranquebaricus : outer and inner views

respectively; Figs. 27a, 27b. Pecten distans : outer and inner views
respectively

JourN. BomBAY NAT. Hist. Soc, PLATE VIII

Figs. 28a, 28b. Pecten crassicostatus : outer and inner views res-
pectively ; Figs. 29a, 29b. Pecten pyxidatus: outer and inner
views respectively ; Figs. 30a, 30b. Spondylus layardi : outer and
inher views respectively

. MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH—Illi 95
Genus Spondylus Linné. (Thorny Oysters)

The surface of the free valve has rows of short spiny processes while
the corresponding surface of the attached valve has rough concentric
laminations. The outside is bright pink and the hinge margins are
well angulated. |

29. Spondylus layardi Reeve. Plate VIII, figs. 30a, 30b

Shell rather thick and somewhat irregular. Mostly found attached
to some object with the help of the right valve. The left valve, which
is free, bears upon its hinge two strong lateral teeth and three medial
depressions. Rim of inside of valve has pink border; rest of inside
white. On top centre of hinge, there is a triangular impression for
the reception of the ligament.

Pirotan Island.

Family LIMIDAE

Members of this family usually have pale coloured ovoidal shells.
The ligamentary area is triangular. The teeth may be absent. The
radial ribs. are characterized by nodulations. or. transverse scales. __

Genus Lima Chemnitz
Characters same as above.

30. Lima lima (Linné). Plate IX, figs. 31a, 31b

Valve somewhat oval. Many radial ribs, some stronger than the
rest. Auricles short but definite. Fine dark-brown streaks radiate
from the umbo. Only one rather worn out valve.

Veraval. |

Family ANOMIIDAE (Window-Pane Oysters)

This family consists of shells which have rounded but unequal and
translucent valves. | |

Genus Anomia Linné

- The byssus passes through a deep cleft (in young shells) or a circular
perforation (in adult shells) in the right valve. The inner surface is
pearly. eC! ei Mone Rie soe Sd GF hese arr
[49]

96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

31. Anomia achaeus Gray. Plate XI, figs. 32a, 32b

Form rather peculiar. Colour translucent reddish brown and
external surface somewhat crumpled. Ribs radial but discontinuous.
looking more like mountains radiating from the umbo than
continuous ribs. Inside smooth and glossy but, in the centre, a
large rhomboidal area with four impressions (see figure) which might
owe their origin to the adductor muscles. The vaive is thin but very
hard and seems to be made of only nacre (of reddish hue). Only one
valve was found (left).

Pirotan Island.
Note. This valve has certain features in common with Plicatula

australis Lamarck (Pectinidae), as described by Satyamurti (1956).
However, a pair of strong hinge teeth found in australis are totally
absent from our specimen. |

Genus Placenta Retzius

These are the true window-pane oysters and have nearly equal
valves. The valves are almost flat and the outer surfaces are totaily

finely laminated.

32. Placenta placenta (Linné). Plate LX, figs. 33a, 33b

Live specimens look like slightly oval discs. Actual dimensions
of this species are difficult to obtain as the rims are extremely thin
and brittle. One valve a little convex and the other flat, if not a
jittle concave. General hue translucent and faint pearly pink. The
inside of the convex valve has two deep grooves which radiate from
the umbo, one of them shorter and more curved than the other (in
this specimen 14-5 mm. and 21-4 mm. respectively). Corresponding to
these grooves, two teeth on the other valve. Umbo faint and central.
Adductor impression more or less central, large and roundish. The
inside smooth and pearly. The outside has concentric_markings (owing
to laminations) decorated with radial sculpturings. General appearance
of outside more laminated than smooth. Inside, there are two shallow
laminated bays near the hinge corners. The valves very much
resemble mica sheets in consistency, and in olden times were frequently
used as window panes.

Pirotan Island.

Family OSTREIDAE (Tirue Oysters)

The valves are dissimilar and somewhat irregular. The left vaive

is anchored to the substratum and the hinge is toothless.

[50]

JouRN. BomBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. | PLATE 1X

y J Fe, , . SS =
,; 7 Wh i ~
mh .
W/ H “Mt vert
RR WS

|
|

(i,

Figs. 31a, 31b. Lima lima: outer and inner views respectively;
Figs. 32a, 32b. Anomia achaeus: outer and inner views respectively ;
Figs. 33a, 33b. Placenta placenta: outer and inner views respectively

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc. PLATE X

Fig. 34. Ostrea madrasensis : the left valve; Figs. 35a, 35b. Ostrea folium:
the left and the right valve respectively; Figs. 36a, 36b. Crassatella rostrata:
outer and inner views respectively —

MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH—IIL oF

Genus Ostrea Linné

The characters are as described for the family.

33. Ostrea madrasensis Preston. Plate X, fig. 34

No radial folds upon the valves. The right valve is like a deep
spatula. Its margin is even and its shape elongate. Ligamentary
area triangular with a median triangular depression and two lateral
triangular ridges. The whole area is covered with transverse striations
which conform with growth. Adductor impression in centre of valve.
Left valve very thick and the sides laminated. Left valve only.

Pirotan Island (obtained from the keepers of the lighthouse).

34. Ostrea folium Gmelin. Plate X, figs. 35a, 35b

A complete specimen was found. Left valve somewhat arched
and right valve thin, rectangular, and plate-like, with ridge-like fold in
middle. Colour of both valves is deep purple, powdery white inside.
Sides of valves plain. Two horn-like processes on left valve.

Pirotan Isiand.

Note. According to Hornell, 1951, p. 91, owing to their constant
variability, the identification of Ostreids is difficult.

Family CRASSATELLIDAE

The shell is small, thick, ovate, and the posterior margin has the
shape of an elongated ‘S’. The surface bears thick concentric ridges.

Genus Crassatella Lamarck

Valve an inequivalve with hind margin either truncated or beaked.
Cardinal teeth distinct while lateral teeth are hardly developed.

35. Crassatella rostrata Lamarck. Plate X, figs. 36a, 36b

Shell glossy and light brown. Two cardinal teeth in the left valve and
three in right, of which the large middle one fits between the two
teeth of left valve. A definite beak in postero-ventral edge. Thick
and regular concentric striations upon the surface. The number of the
Striations increases with age. In the series in our collection the
striations range from 11 (length-=13-5 mm.) to 15 (length=24-4 mm.).
The inside is smooth and bears a small pallial sinus. The outside of
some is white while others have radial streaks of brown.

Hanuman Dandi.

[51]

98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

Family CARDITIDAE (False Cockles)

Small heavy shells with strong radial ribs. The cardinal teeth are
often so shaped as to lead to the formation of one in the left and two
iong posterior teeth in the right valve. The anterior cardinal and
lateral teeth are mostly rudimentary. The ligament is external and
the pallial sinus is lacking. |

Genus Cardita Bruguiére

The shell is roundishly ovate and has a strong umbo.

36. Cardita bicolor Lamarck. Plate XI, figs. 37a, 37b

Shell strong, inflated with thick wide ribs; anterior ribs bear
transverse striations which thin out posteriorly; 2 to 3 distinct circular
grooves (growth lines) traverse both ribs and interstices; interstices deep
and narrow; inside powdery white with somewhat sunk adductor
impressions and no pallial sinus. V-shaped depressions upon rim of
inside corresponding to the ribs and interstices.

Pirotan Island. Hanuman Dandi.

Genus Beguina (Bolten) Réding

Shell elongated; umbo placed anteriorly.

37. Beguina variegata (Bruguiére). Plate XI, figs. 38a, 38b

Shell dull-white in colour and elongated, with strong ribs which
radiate almost from the anterior tip. Anterior ribs narrow, but ribs
passing over keel very thick. Definite circular markings which appear
like scales upon the ribs. A slight indentation under umbo and a wide
depression upon ventral margin.

Pirotan Island.

Family LIBITINIDAE

Elongate shell with umbo much in the front, two cardinal teeth and
a long posterior lateral and a short anterior tooth. Members of this
family have not been reported from the Karwar coast (Patil 1952) but
have been included by Gravely (1941) in his list of the shells of Madras
beach.

Genus Libitina Schumacher

Characters as described for the family.

[52]

JOURN. BoMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc. PLATE XI

Beant =
\ =
"Cee

UTA

Figs. 37a, 37b. Cardita bicolor : outer and inner views respectively ;
Figs. 38a, 38b. Beguina variegata: outer and inner views respectively ;
Figs. 39a, 39b. Libitina vellicata: outer and inner views respectively ;
Figs. 41a, 41b. Codakia divergens ; outer and inner views respectively

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc. PLATE XII

Figs. 40a, 40b. Lucinia edentula: outer and inner views respectively ;
Figs. 42a, 42b. Divaricella cumingii: outer and inner views respectively ;
Figs. 43a, 43b. Chama spinosa; outer and inner views respectively

MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH—Ill 99

38. Libitina vellicata (Reeve). Plate XI, figs. 39a, 39b

A dull-white shell with moderately fine concentric lines over the
entire surface; a shallow keel runs from the umbo to the postero-ventral
end of rim; ventral side somewhat incurved with a depression just in
front of umbo; posterior adductor impression bigger than anterior;
pallial sinus present. The inside is brownish white.

Pirotan Island.

Family LUCINIDAE (Bladder Shells)

_ Shells mostly inflated, with rather narrow anterior adductor scar,
and none or feeble hinge teeth. The umbones are close and the lunule
is asymmetrical. Lucinids are fairly common in Gulf of Kutch, as
the empty shells are washed ashore in large numbers. However, they
have not been reported from the Karwar coast (Patil 1952).

Genus Lucinia Lamarck

Shell large, moderately thin, toothless, with fine concentric
striations.

39. Lucinia edentula (Linné). Plate XII, figs. 40a, 40b

A large, white shell with fine concentric striations upon the surface.
Inside, a shallow keel which runs from approximately the middle of
hinge joint to posterior end through the middle of scar of posterior
adductor muscle. From anterior end of this keel runs an oblique
depressed line up to ventral end of scar of anterior adductor. Lunule
a bit depressed and sculpturing at anterior end is somewhat coarse.

Pirotan Island.

Genus Codakia Scopoli

Valves moderately inflated and characterized by many radial and
a few concentric striations. Cardinal and lateral teeth present. The
Shell looks like a bi-convex lens.

40. Codakia divergens (Philippi). Plate XI, figs. 41a, 41b

Shell white, somewhat heavy, and a little inequilateral. Slight
depression in front of umbo; radial ribs many, distinct, and divaricate
both anteriorly and posteriorly; extremely fine concentric rings occur
all over outer surface; growth lines few (4 in this case) and deep. Area

[53]

100 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

in front of umbo slightly depressed. Two small cardinal teeth present.
Inside smooth and pale yellow.
Hanuman Dandi. Pirotan Island.

Genus Divaricella Martens
Shell round, inflated, and uniformly divaricated.

41. Divaricella cumingii (A. Adams & Angas). Plate XII, figs. 42a, 42b
A glossy, hard, light, and equivalve shell; hinge almost straight
with two shallow cardinal teeth; there are angulations in the anterior
rim. Inner surface chalky and rim crenate. Outside chracterized by
a series of V-shaped divaricating ribs, apices of which are directed
towards umbo; the apices arranged in a line from the umbo to antero-
ventral edge of rim. Concentric growth lines fairly prominent and deep.
Hanuman Dandi. Pirotan Island.

Family CHAMIDAE

Shell heavy and left valve attached to substratum. Hinge margin
thick, with large teeth. Surface beset with circular rows of spines
of various shapes and sizes.

Genus Chama (Linné)

This is the only genus of the family.

42. Chama spinosa Broderip. Plate XII, figs. 43a, 43b

Shell nearly flat and orbicular; upper valves covered profusely with
minute scaly spines, which are long and laminiferous towards the
umbones. Shell dark-brown; rim of the inside finely crenulate.

Veraval.

43. Chama fragrum Reeve. The Strawberry Chama. Plate XIII,
figs. 44a, 44b

Shell rounded and light-pink, with fine scaly spines arranged in
concentric rings; impressions of radial ribs present; spines upon two
posterior radial ribs larger than the rest. Upon these ribs, the
peripheral scales are very large and foliaceous. Between these two
radial rows, circular rows of very fine and uniform scaly spines. Valve
fairly deep and umbo directed forwards.\ Only the right valve.

Veraval.

[54]

JoURN. BoMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc. PLATE XIII

UF pai (gene Dy
> Ps] yr 7) yy
2: Bh reat A (4

?
/

20mm.

[@mm.

ais: Y :
Sp aD Oe
ie Aten ie f
‘ty : ae aa <<
aa age ste) { toe aoe : x
slay ee ete mk { rie ier | a ies i
. v. Aa 3 & al eG - —a
acl tea ty a Va CO
+ be pa traint 4 Vena * 2 ae “ a, x Ey
» Pape ste tae : Se aS wees s
“2a BAe ian se ear) ee Shon as
Se nee STAG Sat eed Dy
hs . 3 ay aay 3 - “ & fa
Ae Fiat a € ean
Fe ee SO ods iy ne) Q
y BS ¢ < Vix Ed } ik 2 Ly — “ ~
Ned if ¢ } Tabs 3
4, 5 ’ a
Md & 5 y 4 " Ky :
4 je ‘i Ne
fs

Figs. 44a, 44b. Chama fragrum: outer and inner views respectively ;

_ Figs. 45a, 45b. Chama reflexa: outer and inner views respectively ;
Figs. 46a, 46b. Cardium asiaticum: outer and inner views respectively

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE XIV

ae
‘>.

ates

tm
>
‘aagy

a
MSN eee
=
3 o%e

«See
~ ee

rae Vest Bees
: : : Zisky
«fs SL Ohi? wh ik
ete Pod: ayaa nts [his ra
(6 fe S Fp EE Toy Poise o%
pe Me Flee she Ae Ma ee)
Pepe P TEAL S yt ee 3!
(gf ef Fiet E We
Deo aire es ACH Vi
oof iii E ee
a a Cee). Pets:
ie Py Z 3 i m £ Cy 34
: z ‘ oe oy?
eee eg 3 a “i £8
2 Cy os lp t on e
@ wes es Pe |
hay Mae hae) tae Fae) |
ce & & sgh) ates ° a |
Sires teal Se Se
ie be TH Os
: iy Se Si
ba "3 |
ec
Ba NO dike
eh

47a, 47b. Cardium assimile: outer and inner views respectively ;
48a, 48b. Cardium australe: outer and inner views respectively ;
49a, 49b. Cardium flavum: outer and inner views respectively

MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH—III 101

44, Chama reflexa Reeve. Plate XIII, figs. 45a, 45b

A very heavy, inflated, flesh-coloured shell, with short tubular
spines arranged in circular rows. <A few (3 here) of the ventral scales
triangular and large. Inside crenulated. According to Gravely (1941)
the shape of this shell is extremely variable.

Veraval.

Family CARDIIDAE (Cockles)

This important family has nearly rounded shells with strong radial
ribs, external ligament, and similar hinge teeth on both the valves.
There are two cardinal teeth and two lateral teeth.

Genus Cardium Linné

Shell mostly evenly curved; ribs often scaly or tuberculated.

45. Cardium asiaticum Bruguiére. Plate XIII, figs. 46a, 46b

Shell thin and rounded; ribs almost smooth, crested, with strong
internal impressions; side walls of ribs finely granular; concentric lines
nearly imperceptible, except at the interstices of a few posterior ribs
where these lines are only barely perceptible.

Hanuman Dandi.

46. Cardium assimile Reeve. Plate XIV, figs. 47a, 47b

A large pinkish shell in which height is much more than length;
ribs strongly developed, with fine serrations which, in a few of the
hindmost ribs, have essumed the form of tubercles. Inside smooth and
glossy, with posterior side somewhat truncated and anterior. side
roundish. Very common and attains considerable size. .

Pirotan Island.

47, Cardium australe Sowerby. Plate XIV, figs. 48a, 48b

Shell smooth, with ribs having tendency to fade out near the umbo,
leaving it absolutely smooth. The shell is pale brown, roundish (with
faint angulation in posterior side), and moderately heavy. In fresh
specimens tip of umbo has pinkish hue. Internally, there is a thin
keel which starts from the umbo and reaches the posterior boundary
of the posterior adductor scar.

Pirotan Island. Hanuman Dandi.

48. Cardium flavum Linné. Plate XIV, figs. 49a, 49b
Shell thick with rather squarish outline. Upon the outer surface
about 29 to 30 strong radial ribs with deep interstices and fine con-
[55]

102 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

centric markings. Upon hind ribs, the circular rings form laminar

tubercles. Outside dull white but inner surface glossy and white. The

valves are a little oblique.
Pirotan Island.

49. Cardium setosum Redfern. Plate XV, figs. 50a, 50b

Readily distinguished from the previous species by: length exceeding
height, flattened ribs, marrow interstices, and rows of seta-like
tubercles upon ribs. Tubercles, when present, are arranged in single
file upon the ribs. On posterior and anterior ribs, they occur on all
the ribs and extend to the umbo; in other areas they are discontinuous.
In the ventro-posterior area, the tubercles are generally on alternate
ribs. Externally, shell yellowish with concentric brownish patches;
internally, it presents smooth glossy white surface with a tinge of
yellow which fans out from the umbo. These shells grow to large size
(we have shells 45 mm. in length). ‘

Veraval.

Family VENERIDE (Clams)

A very large family, with many representatives in the Gulf of
Kutch. Characterized by a regular shell, three cardinal teeth (‘with
an additional tooth in front of the left valve and a hollow on the
right’), and a sinuate pallial line. !

Genus Meretrix Lamarck

Shell heavy, smooth, nearly triangular. with a thin glossy perio-
stracum which tends to peel off in museum specimens. Hinge thick,
with three cardinal teeth; pallial sinus small. Easily recognized by
presence of. fine transverse striations upon posterior lateral tooth of left
valve and corresponding depression on right valve.

From an extensive study of Meretrix of Indian waters, Hornell (1917)
concluded that in India there are three distinct species of Meretrix
with many varieties in each: Meretrix meretrix (Linn.), Meretrix
attenuata Dunker, and Meretrix casta (Chemnitz). Of these the first
and the last have been collected by us from the Gulf of Kutch.

50. Meretrix meretrix (Linné). Plate XV, figs. S5la, S5Ib

Valve trigono-sub-orbicular with a few smooth concentric growth
lines. The surface is covered by a thin pale brown periostracum.
There is a characteristic dark chevron-shaped radial patch extending

[56]

JOURN. BomMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. PLATE XV

Figs. 50a, 50b. Cardium setosum: outer and inner views respectively ;
Figs, 51a, 51b. Meretrix meretrix. outer and inner views respectively ;
Figs, 52a, 52b. Meretrix casta: outer and inner views respectively

MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH—III 103

from the umbo to the ventral hind corner where it shows up even
internally. There is also a characteristic notch in the anterior cardinal
tooth of the left valve.

Pirotan Island.

51. Méeretrix casta (Chemnitz). Plate XV, figs. 52a, 52b

Shell somewhat ovate and pinkish in general colour with alternate
concentric rings of darker and lighter shades. Also there are fine
rays of pinker hue. According to Hornell (1917), ‘this species is
exceedingly variable and ignorance of this fact has caused great con-
fusion over its nomenclature’.

Veraval.

(to be continued)

[57]

More Cyanophyceae of Hoshiarpur : Ill

P. C. VASISHTA
Department of Botany, Government College, Kapurthala, Panjab

(With two plates)
{Continued from Vol. 60 (3) : 678]

An extensive collection and a continuous study of the Cyanophycean
flora of Hoshiarpur form the subject matter of the present communica-
tion which is the fourth in the series. It incorporates records and
descriptions of sixty species belonging to 21 genera. One new species,
seven new varieties, and five new forms have been included in this work.
In the previous communications [J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. Vols. 57(3),
58(1), and 60(3)] the author described 114 species belonging to 32 genera,
and this paper brings the total to 174 species belonging to 34 genera.

Anabaena volzii Lemm. forma recta Kiss., Scytonema saleyeriense
Weber van Bosse, and S. chiastum Geitler have been, to the best of the
author’s knowledge, described for the first time from the Indian soil.

Cyanophyceae described in the present paper have been mainly
collected from both aquatic and terrestrial habitats. Phormidium bigra-
nulatum Gardner forma major f. nov. isa common endophytic blue-green
alga growing within the gelatinous envelope of Aphanothece pallida and
some species of Rivularia. Rivularia aquatica De Wilde and Gloeotrichia
natans Rabenh, are the common epiphytic blue-green algae that usually
grow on the leaves and stems of submerged angiosperms and some green
algae like Chara and Nitella. Aphanothece pallida (Kiitz.) Rabenh.
commonly forms a blue-green or yellowish green gelatinous growth on
moist brickwork or soil during the rainy season. The thallus becomes
papery and yellowish brown after the rains. During the drier periods
the cells show extensive spore formation.

SYSTEMATIC ENUMERATION OF THE SPECIES OBSERVED
Order CHROOCOCCALES Wetstein
Family CHROOCOCCACEAE Nageli
CHROOCOCCUS Nageli

1. Chroococcus turgidus Nag. in Gatt. Einzell. Algen 46, 1849;
Desikachary, Cyanophyta 101, pl. 26, fig. 6, 1959.
[21]

MORE CYANOPHYCEAE OF HOSHIARPUR: Ill 105

Diameter cell with sheath = 19-2-23:04 » ; diameter cell without
sheath =11°5-15°3 4; sheath colourless, not distinctly lamellated ;
contents blue-green.

Habitat - Planktonic in a roadside pond, Hoshiarpur. Mixed with
other algae. June 24, 1960.

2. Chroococcus varius, A. Br. in Rabenhorst’s Alg. Eur. 246, 248,
2452, 2459, 1863-78 ; Desikachary 107, pl. 24, fig. 5, 1959.

Diameter cell without sheath = 2:7-3°8 yp; diameter cell with
sheath = 5°1-8°5 »; sheath indistinctly lamellated ; cells single or in
fours, rarely in bigger groups ; sheath colourless or yellow.

Habitat: On the cemented side of a water tank, Government
College, Hoshiarpur. May 5, 1960.

GLOEOCAPSA Kiitzing

3. Gloeocapsa nigrescens Nag. in Rabenhorst’s Alg. Sachs. 63
629, 1875 ; Desikachary 117, pl. 24, figs. 15,.17, 1959.

Diameter cell without sheath = 3°8-6°6 »; diameter cell with
sheath = 11°5-13°4 » ; sheath colourless, unlamellated, broad ; spores
not observed. :

Habitat : On moist soil, Hoshiarpur. Mixed with G. polydermatica
and Phormidium foveolarum. June 16, 1960.

GLOEOTHECE Niageli

4. Gloeothece membranacea Bornet in Alg. de Schousb., Mem. Soc.
Nat. Sci. 28 : 175, 1892 ; Desikachary 128, 1959.

Long. cell without sheath = 7°6-9:5 «7; long. cell with sheath = up
to 11°5 ~; lat. cell without sheath = 4°7-6 « ; lat. cell with sheath =
7°6-9°5 pb.

Habitat : In a glass trough containing algae in Botanical Labora-
tory, Government College, Hoshiarpur. October 27, 1960.

APHANOTHECE Nageli

5. Aphanothece pallida Rabenh. Fl. Eur. Alg. 2: 64, 1865;
Kryptog. Fl. Sachosen 1:76, 1863; Desikachary 140, pl. 22, fig. 3,
1959. Microcystis pallida Lemm. Psepiseament Mark Brandenb.
32-77, 1907.

Lat. cell without sheath = 6°6-8 ,» ; lat. cell with enh = 7°6-9'°5 p;
long. cell without sheath = 9°5-12°1 p; long. cell with sheath = 11°5-
19-2 » ; cells oblong, elliptical or cylindrical.

Habitat : On moist soil of lawns, Government College, Hoshiarpur.
August 8, 1960.

[22]

106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)
MERISMOPEDIA Meyen

6. Merismopedia punctata Meyen in Wiegmann, Archiv. 2: 67, 1839;
Desikachary 155, pl. 23, fig. 5 & pl. 29, fig. 6, 1959.

Colonies small, 32-celled, 21:1 » broad; cells spherical or ovoid,
2°5-3°4 « broad.

Habitat : Planktonic in a stagnant water roadside pond, Phagwara
Road, Hoshiarpur. October 15, 1959.

SYNECHOCYSTIS Sauvageau

7. Synechocystis pevalekii Ercegovic in Acta Bot. inst. Bot. Univ.
R. Zagreb 1:77, pl. 1, fig. 8, 1925; Desikachary 145, pl. 25, fig. 11,
1959. (Plate I, Fig. 1).

Cells spherical, contents blue-green, homogenous, single or two
together, 2°7-3°4 « diam.

Habitat: Planktonic in a stagnant water pond, Phagwara Road,
Hoshiarpur. June 8, 1960. y

Order NOSTOCALES Geitler

Family OSCILLATORIACEAE Kirchner

SPIRULINA Turpin ex Gardner

8. Spirulina major Kiitz. ex Gomont. [Kiitzing, Phyc. Gene. 183,
1843] ; Gomont, Mon. Oscill. 251, pl. 7, fig. 29, 1892; Desikachary
196, pl. 36, fig. 13, 1959.

Lat. trichome = 1:7-2 »; Spirals = 3-51 yp distant, 2°5-3°3 gp
broad ; regularly spirally coiled.

Habitat: In stagnant water, mixed with Oscillatoria jasorvensis.
May 14, 1960.

OSCILLATORIA Vaucher

9. Oscillatoria perornata Skuja in Nov. Acta Reg. Soc. Uppsal.
(ser. 4) 14: 47, pl. 8, figs. 7-9, 1949 ; Desikachary 205, pl. 41, figs. 8,
9, 14, 1959.

Trichomes single or aggregated, briefly attenuated at the ends, cons-
tricted at the cross walls, 13°4-15:3 » broad; cells small, 2°7-5:7 , long,
contents granular, septa granulated ; end cell hemispherical ; calyptra
absent.

Habitat: On the inner side of a tube well, Government College,
Hoshiarpur. October 1, 1960,

[23]

MORE CYANOPHYCEAE OF HOSHIARPUR; III 107

10. Oscillatoria curviceps Ag. ex-Gomont. [Agardh, Syst. Alg. 68,
1824]; Gomont, Mon. Oscill. 213, pl. 6, fig. 14, 1892 ; Desikachary
209, pl. 38, fig. 2, 1959. form described by Parukutty in Proc. Indian
Acad. Sci. 11: 120, 1940.

Lat. trichome = 7°6-11°1 2 ; long. cell = 1:9-2°7 yp.

Habitat : On the sides of a tube well, Hoshiarpur. Mixed with Osc.
perornata and Osc. formosa. October 1, 1960.

11. Oscillatoria jasorvensis Vouk in Jugosl. Akad. Zagreb, 14: 133,
fig. 1, 1919 ; Desikachary 221, 1959.

Lat. trichome = 2°5-3°8 p ; long. cell = 2°5-3°8 w ; end cell rounded,
calyptra absent.

Habitat : From the sides of a water course at Chak Saidu, Hoshiar-
pur. May 12, 1960.

12. Oscillatoria limnetica Lemm. in Ber. deutsch. bot. Ges. 18:
310, 1900 ; Desikachary 226, pl. 37, fig. 3, 1959.

Lat. cell = 1°5-1:7 » ; long. cell = 8°5-11°9 y» ; calyptra absent.

Habitat : Mixed with Osc. jasorvensis Vouk. May 12, 1960.

13. Oscillatoria amoena Gomont var. major var. nov. (Plate I,
Fig. 2).

Thallus caeruleo-viridis; trichomata constricta, attenuata ad
apicem, 3°8-6°6 p» lata; contentis caeruleo-viridibus, septis transversis
eranularibus ; cellulae 3°8-4:7 » longae; cellula terminalis capitata,
conica; calyptra adest. Positus in Government College, Hoshiarpur
herbario sub numero Vasishta 21. ©

Thallus blue-green ; trichomes constricted, attenuated at the ,ends,
3-8-6°6 » broad ; contents blue-green, septa granulated ; cells 3°8-4:7 yw
long ; end cell capitate, conical ; calyptra present.

Habitat: In a roadside pond at Hoshiarpur. Collected on February
6, 1960 and deposited in Government College, Hoshiarpur herbarium
under reference number Vasishta 21.

The variety differs from the type in possessing broader trichomes.

14. Oscillatoria annae Van Coor forma minor f. nov. (Plate I,
Fig. 3). |

Trichomata recta vel curva, attenuata ad apicem, 6°6-7°6 4 lata;
cellulae 2°5-3°8 » longae; cellula terminalis rotundata; calyptra
nulla. Positus in Government College, Hoshiarpur herbario sub numero
Vasishta 22.

Trichomes straight or curved, attenuated at the ends, 6°6-7°6 »
broad ; cells 2°5-3°8 » long ; end cell rounded ; calyptra absent.

Habitat : In a roadside pond at Hoshiarpur. May 24, 1960.
Deposited in Government College, Hoshiarpur herbarium under refer-
ence number Vasishta 22.

[ 24]

108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

The form differs from the type in possessing smaller dimensions of
the trichome.

15. Oscillatoria proboscidea Gomont forma hoshiarpurensis f. nov.
(Plate I, Fig. 4).

Trichomata recta vel curva, caeruleo-viridia, attenuata ad apicem,
7°6-8°5 p lata; cellulae 1°9-2°5 p» longae; cellula terminalis capitata,
rotundata ; calyptra adest. Posita in Government College, Hoshiarpur
herbario sub numero Vasishta 23.

Trichomes straight or curved, blue-green, attenuated at the ends,
7°6-8°5 p» broad ; cells 1°9-2°5 p long ; end cell capitate, rotund ; calyptra
present.

Habitat : On the sides of a cemented reservoir, Government College,
Hoshiarpur. May 26, 1960. Deposited in Government College, Hoshiar-
pur herbarium under reference number Vasishta 23.

The form differs from the type in possessing smaller dimensions of
the trichomes.

16. Oscillatoria foreaui Fremy forma minor f. nov. (Plate I, Fig. 5).

Thallus caeruleo-viridis ; trichomata curva, raro recta, constricta ad
septa, 1°9-2°5 « lata; cellulae 1:7-1:9 w longae; cellula terminalia late
conica; calyptra nulla. Posita in Government College, Hoshiarpur
herbario sub numero Vasishta 24.

Thallus blue-green; trichomes curved rarely straight, constricted
at septa, 1:9-2°5 « broad ; cells 1°7-1:9 » long ; end cell broadly conical ;
calyptra absent.

Habitat : On moist soil, Hoshiarpur. July 14, 1960. Deposited
in Government College, Hoshiarpur herbarium under reference number
Vasishta 24.

The form differs from the type in possessing narrower trichomes.

PHORMIDIUM Kiitzing

17. Phormidium tenue Gomont, Mon. Oscill. 169, pl. 4, figs. 23-25,
1892 ; Desikachary 259, pl. 43, figs. 7-9, 1959.

Lat. trichome = 1°7-2 ; long. cell = 2°7-5'1 ,. ; trichomes slightly
constricted at the septa ; end cell conical.

Habitat : Forming a blue-green thallus on the sides of a tank in ice
factory at Hoshiarpur. June 29, 1960.

18. Phormidium papyraceum Gomont 173, pl. 5, figs. 3-4, 1892;
Desikachary 271, 1959.

Lat. trichome = 3°8-5°1 «; long. cell = 3°8-4°7 yu.

Habitat : Ina temporary ditch by the side of railway track, Hoshiar-
pur. May 30, 1960. .

[25]

MORE CYANOPHYCEAE OF HOSHIARPUR: lil io9

19. Phormidium africanum Lemm. Deutsche Zentr. Afr. Exped.
2 : 89, 1911 ; Desikachary 254, 1959.

Trichomes constricted at the septa, 1°7-2 , broad; cells 1°7-3:4 yw
long ; end cell truncated with a calyptra.

Habitat : On the bottom of a pond, Phagwara Road, Hoshiarpur.
November 5, 1960. y

20. Phormidium angustissimum W. et G. S. West in Jour. Bot.
Lond. 35 : 298, 1897 ; Desikachary 253, 1959.

Thallus thin, blue-green ; trichomes bent and entangled, constricted
at cross walls, 0°85-1:2 ,« broad; cells cylindrical, 3°8-7°6 « long ; end
cell not capitate.

Habitat : On moist soil, Hoshiarpur. June 6, 1960.

21. Phormidium jenkelianum Schmid forma majus f. nov. (Plate I,
Fig. 6).

Trichomata pallide caeruleo-viridia, curva, constricta, 2-5-3 /: lata ;
cellulae 1°7-2 ,. longae; cellula terminalis rotundata; calyptra nulla.
Posita in Government College, Hoshiarpur Eos sub numero
Vasishta 25.

Trichomes light blue-green, curved, constricted, 2°5-3 ,. broad ; cells
1-7-2 w long ; end cell rounded ; calyptra absent.

Habitat: Along the sides of botanical tank, Government College.
Hoshiarpur. May 23, 1960. Deposited in Government College,
Hoshiarpur herbarium under reference number Vasishta 25.

The form differs from the type in possessing broader trichomes.

22. Phormidium favosum Gomont var. minus var. nov. (Plate |,
Fig. 7).

Thallus caeruleo-viridis, complanatus ; filamenta 5.7-6.6 ju lata ;
vagina tenuis ; trichomata 3°8-4:7 « lata, attenuata ad apicem ; cellulae
aeque longae ac latae, 3°8-4°7 « longae, septa transversalia granulata ;
cellula terminalis rotundata; calyptra adest. Positus in Government
College, Hoshiarpur herbario sub numero Vasishta 26.

Thallus blue-green, expanded ; filaments 5:7-6°6 » broad; sheath
thin ; trichomes 3°8-4°7 ;. broad, attenuated at the ends; cells as long
as broad, 3°8-4°7 « long, septa granulated ; end cell rounded ; calyptra
present,

Habitat : Amidst the plants of Marchantia nepalensis at Bharwain,
Hoshiarpur, July 8, 1960. Deposited in Government College, Hoshiar-
pur herbarium under reference number Vasishta 26.

The variety resembles the type in possessing : (a) granulated septa,
(b) trichomes attenuated and not constricted at the septa, and (c) end
cell rounded, capitate and calyptrate ; but differs in possessing smaller
dimensions of the filaments and the trichomes.

[26]

10. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

23. Phormidium usteri Schmidle in Hedwigia 6: 414, 1904 ; Desika-
chary'257, 1959:

Lat: ‘filament = 3°8-4°7 = lone: cel) = 2-7-3 = tat. ciencikh =
3°4-4 «5 end cell broadly rounded ; calyptra absent.

Habitat: Floating in a roadside pond near village Sham Chaurassi,
Hoshiarpur. May 29, 1960.

24. Phormidium abronema Skuja in Susswasseralg. Burmas 50,
pl. 8, fig. 25, 1949 ; Desikachary 257, 1959 (Plate I, Fig. 8).

Lat. filament = 4°7-7°6 4c; lat. trichome = 3°4-4°5 «1 ; long. cell =
3°8-7°6 w ; trichomes attenuated at the ends, constricted at the septa ;
end cell conical ; calyptra absent.

Habitat : On moist soil, Hoshiarpur. June 1, 1960.

25. Phormidium pachydermaticum Fremy, Myxo. Afr. Equat.
Franc. 156, fig. 138, 1929; Desikachary 267, pl. 43, figs. 8-10, 1959.

Thallus dull blue-green ; filaments straight or slightly curved, 6: 6-8°5
4. broad ; sheath distinct, thick, lamellated; trichomes unconstricted,
5:7-6°6 4 broad, trichome ends straight, not attenuated ; end cell conical
with obtuse apex: cells 3.4-5.7 ,. long; calyptra may be present.

Habitat ; On tree trunks, Hoshiarpur. July 21, 1960. The type is
being reported for the first time from the Indian soil.

26. Phormidium jadinianum Gomont in Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr. 40: 161,
1893 ; Desikachary 256, pl. 55, fig. 9, 1959.

Filaments long and more or less parallel, 7:6 « broad; trichomes
4-6 « broad, constricted ; cells 3°8-4°6 . long; end cell acute conical ;
calyptra absent.

Habitat : On the bark of Mangifera indica, Hoshiarpur. July 18,

1960.

27. Phormidium inundatum Kitz. ex-Gomont. ([Ktitzing, Species
Algarum 251, 1849] ; Gomont, Mon. Osc. 172, pl. 4, figs. 31-32, 1892 ;
Desikachary 271, 1959.

Lat. filament = 5-6°6 » ; lat. trichome = 3°8-5‘7 p ; long. cell = 3°8-
7:6 4; not constricted at the cross walls; septa granulated ; end cell
obtuse conical ; calyptra absent.

Habitat : On moist walls, Hoshiarpur. August 17, 1960.

28. Phormidium bigranulatum Gardner forma major f. nov. (Plate
I, Fig. 9).

Filamenta longa, recta vel curva, 1°7-1:9 » lata; trichomata 1°5-1:7 »
lata; cellulae longae, cylindricae, septa transversalia granulata,
3°4-5°1 » longa. Positus in Government College, Hoshiarpur herbario
sub numero Vgsishta 27.

[27]

MORE CYANOPHYCEAE OF HOSHIARPUR: III 111

Filaments long, straight or curved, -1°7-1:9 ~ broad; trichomes
_1:5-1°7 « broad; cells long, cylindrical, septa granulated, 3°4-5-1 ju
long.

Habitat: In the gelatinous thalli of Aphanothece pallida, August 11,
1960. Deposited in Government College, Hoshiarpur herbarium under
reference number Vasishta 27.

The form differs from the type in possessing broader filaments
and trichomes. The length of the cells is also a little lesser than that
reported for the type.

29. Phormidium subfuscum Gomont var. joannianum Gomont,
Mon. Oscill. 184, 1892 ; Desikachary 273, 1959.

Lat. trichome = 5°7-7 .; long. cell == 3°8-4 ;.; end cell conical
with acute apex ; septa granulated.

Habitat : On moist soil, Hoshiarpur. August 26, 1960.

30. Phormidium dimorphum Lemm. Arch. Hydrobiol. (u. Plank-
ton.) 4: 187, pl. 5, figs. 25-28, 1908; Desikachary 256, pl. 54, fig. 8,
1959.

Lat. filament = 5-1-6 ~; lat. trichome = 3°5-5'1 ~; long. cell =
3-5°7 4; trichomes constricted; end cell hemispherical; calyptra
absent.

Habitat : Along the sides of a puckka drain, Hoshiarpur. August
30, 1960.

31. Phormidium uncinatum Gomont, Mon. Oscill. 184, pl. 5,
figs. 21-22, 1892; Desikachary 276, pl. 43, figs. 1-2, pl. 45, figs. 9-10,
1959.

Lat. filament = 8°5-11'5 w; lat. trichome = 6°6-9°5 «3; long. cell =
2°7-5°7 ,«; cross walls granulated ; end cell with a calyptra.

Habitat : On moist soil, Hoshiarpur. September 2, 1960.

_ 32. Phormidium stagninum Rao in Jour. Indian Bot. Soc. 17: 93,
figs. 4-7, 1938 ; Desikachary 265, pl. 45, figs. 16-18, 1959.
Lat. filament = 12°1-13°4 uw; lat. trichome = 10°5-11'5 j4; long.
cell = 1:9-2:7 ~ ; calyptra present.
Habitat : Along the side of a drain, Hoshiarpur. September 24,
1960.

33. Phormidium stagninum Rao var. robustum var. nov. (Plate I,
Fig. 10).

Thallus caeruleo-viridis; filamenta longa et curva, 15°3-19°2 ju
lata ; vagina distincta, hyalina; trichomata non-constricta, 11°5-15°3 /
lata; cellulae 1:9-2°7 . longae, contentis granularibus; cellula termi-
nalis rotundata; calyptra adest. Positus in Government College,
Hoshiarpur herbario sub numero Vasishta 28.

[28 ]

112. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (i)

Thallus blue-green ; filaments long and curved, 15°3-19:2 » broad;
sheath distinct, hyaline; trichomes unconstricted, 11:5-15:3 1 broad;
cells 1°9-2°7 ;« long, contents granular; end cell rounded; calyptra
present.

Habitat : On moist soil, Hoshiarpur. August 27, 1960. Deposited
in Government College, Hoshiarpur herbarium under reference number
Vasishta 28.

The variety resembles the type in possessing unattenuated, uncon-
stricted trichomes with a distinct calyptra; but differs in the broader
dimensions of filaments and trichomes.

34. Phormidium hoshiarpurense sp. nov. (Plate I, Figs. 11-13).

Thallus caeruleo-viridis ; filamenta longa, recta vel curva, 5°7-6°8 j
lata; vagina tenuis, hyalina, distincfa; trichomata non-constricta,
caeruleo-viridia, 5°1-5:7 lata; cellulae 1:7-1:9 ~. longae, granulatae ad
septa; cellula terminalis rotundata; calyptra adest. Typus lectus
die 24 septembris anni 1960 et positus in Hoshiarpur herbario Collegii
Gubernii sub numero Vasishta 4341.

Thallus blue-green ; filaments long, straight or curved, 5°7-6°8 yu
broad; sheath thin, hyaline, distinct; trichomes not constricted, blue
green, 51-5°7 4. broad; cells 1:7-1:9 4 long, granulated at septa;
end cell rounded ; calyptra present.

Habitat : \n a stagnant water ditch, Phagwara Road, Hoshiarpur.
Collected on September 24, 1960 and deposited in Government College,
Hoshiarpur herbarium under reference number Vasishta 4341.

This species resembles Phormidium stagninum Rao (1938) in the
following respects: (a) trichomes unconstricted and unattenuated,
and (b) end cell rounded and calyptrate; but differs in possessing
(a) smaller dimensions of the trichomes and filaments, and (6) granu-
lated septa. This species, therefore, may be regarded as new and is
named as Phormidium hoshiarpurense sp. nov.

35. Phormidium valderianum Gomont var. minus var. nov. (Plate I,
Fig. 14).

Thallus pallide viridis; trichomata curva, non-constricta, non-
attenuata, 1°7-1:9 lata; cellulae cylindricae, 5:7-6°8 ~ longae; septa
granulata ; cellula terminalis rotundata; calyptra nulla. Positus in
Government College, Hoshiarpur herbario sub numero Vasishta 29.

Thallus pale green; trichomes curved, not constricted, not
attenuated, 1:7-1:9 « broad; cells cylindrical, 5°7-6°8 long; septa
granulated ; end cell rounded ; calyptra absent.

Habitat: On stones in rapidly flowing water at Bharwain,
Hoshiarpur. July 6, 1960. Deposited in Government College, Hoshiar-
pur herbarium under reference number Vasishta 29.

{29 ]

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc.

ee 1 PRET nnaate TUN

LOM

LATTE! lil THT
Mate cone LTE | Seay [ rast aul res featT oT Sarre
. fo
30 fA
_ Fig. 1. Synechocystis pevalekii Erceg.: Showing a dividing cell and a
single cell; 2. Oscillatoria amoena Gom. var. major vat. nov.: Showing
a portion of the trichome; 3. Oscillatoria annae Van Coor forma minor f.
nov.: Showing a portion of the trichome; 4. Oscillatoria proboscidea

Gom. forma hoshiarpurensis f. nov.: Portion of the trichome showing the
Capitate and the calyptrate end cell; 5. Oscillatoria foreaui Fremy forma

_ minor f, noyv.: Portion of a trichome; 6. Phormidium jenkelianum Schmid
_ forma majus f. nov.: Portion of the trichomes with sheath; 7. Phormidium

favosum Gom. var. minus var. nov.: Showing a portion of the filament ;
8. Phormidium abronema Skuja: Portion of a trichome; 9. Phormidium
bigranulatum Gardner forma major f. nov.: Portion of the filament ;
40. Phormidium stagninum Rao var. robustum var. noy.: Portion of the
filament; 11-13. Phormidium_ hoshiarpurense sp. nov.: 11. Portion of the
filament; 12-13, Portions of filaments showing hormogones

PLATE I

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc. PLATE II

Fig. 14. Phormidium valderianum Gom. var. minus var. nov.: Portion of a
filament; 15. Phormidium anomalum Rao var. majus var. nov.: Portion of the filament ;
16. Lyngbya truncicola Ghose var. hoshiarpurensis var. nov.: Portion of a filament show-
ing hormogones; 17. Lyngbya lagerheimii Gom.: Portion of a spirally coiled
filament; 18. Lyngbya nigra Gom. vat. crassa var. nov.: Portion of a filament show-
ing calyptrate end cell.

MORE CYANOPHYCEAE OF HOSHIARPUR Ill 113

The variety resembles the type in possessing: (a) unconstricted
trichomes, (b) one or two granules on either side of each septum, (c)
cells longer than broad, and (d) end cell rounded ; but differs in the
smaller dimensions of the trichomes.

36. Phormidium anomalum Rao var. majus var. nov. (Plate II,
Fig. 15).

Filamenta curva, caeruleo-viridia, 15:3-17:2 lata; vagina distincta,
hyalina ; trichomata 12°1-16 ; lata, non-constricta; cellulae discoideae,
1-2-1:9 ~ longae ; cellula terminalis rotundata ; calyptra nulla. Positus
in Government College, Hoshiarpur herbario sub numero Vasishta 30.

Filaments curved, blue-green, 15°3-17:2 « broad; sheath distinct,
hyaline; trichomes 12:1-16 broad, unconstricted; cells discoid,
- 1:2-1:9 w long ; end cell rounded ; calyptra absent.

Habitat: In a stagnant water pond, railway road, Hoshiarpur.
September 6, 1960. Deposited in Government College, Hoshiarpur
herbarium under reference number Vasishta 30.

The variety resembles the type in possessing discoid cells, end
cell rounded and no calyptra; but differs in the greater dimensions
of the trichomes.

LYNGBYA Agardh

37. Lyngbya truncicola Ghose in Jour. Linn. Soc. Bot. 46: 399,
pl. 31, fig. 6, 1923 ; Desikachary 308, pl. 51, fig. 4, 1959.

bat. filament = 12°4-19-2 «5 Jat. trichome = 11°5-15°3 4; tong.
cell = 3:8-4 ~; sheath yellowish brown; septa not granulated.

Habitat: On the bark of Murraya exotica, Hoshiarpur. August
17, 1960.

38. Lyngbya truncicola Ghose var. hoshiarpurensis var. nov. (Plate II,
Fig. 16).

Thallus complanatus, caeruleo-viridis; filamenta recta, 16-23°1
lata; vagina luteolo-brunnea, distincta; trichomata non-constricta,
13:4-18 » lata, non-attenuata; cellulae 3:4-44 longae, contentis
granularibus ; cellula terminalis rotundata; calyptra nulla. Positus in
Government College, Hoshiarpur herbario sub numero Vasishta 31.

Thallus expanded, blue-green ; filaments straight, 16-23°1 » broad;
sheath yellowish brown, distinct ; trichomes not constricted, 13-4-18 p
broad, not attenuated ; cells 3-4-4 4 long, contents granular, end cell
rounded ; calyptra absent.

Habitat : On the trunks of Mangifera indica, Hoshiarpur. August
8, 1960. Deposited in Government College, Hoshiarpur herbarium
under reference number Vasishta 31.

[ 30]
: ace

114. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

The variety resembles the type in possessing : (a) filaments with
yellowish brown sheath, (5) short cells without granulations at the
septa, and (c) end cell rounded without calyptra ; but differs in the
greater dimensions of filaments and trichomes.

39. Lyngbya corticicola Briihl et Biswas in Jour. Dept. Sci. Calcutta
Univ. 5:9, pl. 4, fig. 13a-c, 1923; Desikachary 303; pl 55) aie. 53
1959.

Lat. filament = 19:2-22°3 »; lat. trichome = 12°1-15:3 »; long.
cell = 3-8-5 « ; crass. vag. == 2°7-3 » ; septa not granulated.

Habitat : On tree trunks, Hoshiarpur. August 24, 1960.

40. Lyngbya connectens Brihl et Biswas, loc. cit. 5: 4, pl. 2, fig.
8a-e, 1923 ; Desikachary 308, pl. 51, figs. 5, 6, 11, 1959.

Lat. filament = 18-19:2 yw; lat. trichome = 16-172; long. cell
= 2°7-3°8 »; septa granulated, contents granular.

Habitat : On tree trunks, Hoshiarpur. July 18, 1960.

41. Lyngbya dendrobia Brihl et Biswas, loc. cit. 5: 8, pl. 3, fig,
lla-d, 1923; Desikachary 302, pl. 50, figs. 3, 10 and pl. 55, figs. 2-4,
1959.

Lat. filament = 11°5-12°1 yw; lat. trichome = 9°5-11 w; long. cell
= 3°8-7°6 «; trichomes slightly constricted ; contents granular ; septa
not granulated.

Habitat : On the bark of Zizyphus jujuba, Hoshiarpur. August 18,
1960.

42. Lyngbya aestuarii Gomont var. tenuis Dixit in Proc. Indian
Acad. Sci. B 3 : 104, 1936; Desikachary 308, 1959.

Lat. filament = 10°5-12°8 w; lat. trichome = 6°6-8°5 jw; long. cell
= 1-9-3-4 ~; cross walls* granulated.

Habitat : On the wet floor of an ice factory, Hoshiarpur. June |,
1960. 3

43. Lyngbya scotti Fritsch in Nat. Hist. 6: 29, pl. 2, figs. 91-93,
1912; Desikachary 310, 1959.

Lat. filament «= 4°7-5°1 »; lat. trichome = 3-3:2 «; long. cell
= 2:7-3°4 .; end cell conical, not capitate; calyptra absent.

Habitat : On moist soil, Hoshiarpur. September 2, 1960.

44. Lyngbya lagerheimii Gomont, Mon. Oscill. 147, pl. 4, figs. 6, 7,
1892; Desikachary 290, pl. 48, fig. 6 and pl. 53, fig. 2, 1959 (Plate II,
Fig, 17). 3

Lat. filament = 2°7-3°4 w; lat. trichome = 1°7-1:°9 w; long. cell
= 2°7-3°8 b.

Habitat : Among other algae in a pond, Phagwara Road, Hoshiar-
pur. September 22, 1960.

[31]

MORE CYANOPHYCEAE OF HOSHIARPUR ; III 115

45. Lyngbya nigra Ag. ex-Gomont. [Agardh, Syst. Alg. 312, 1824];
Gomont, loc. cit. 145, pl. 3, fig. 16, 1892 ; Desikachary 317, 1959.
Lat. filament = 15°3-16,; lat. trichome = 8-9:5 4; long. cell
= 3°8-4:7 «1; end cell rounded with calyptra.
Habitat : On moist soil, Hoshiarpur. October 15, 1960.

46. Lyngbya nigra Gomont var. crassa var. nov. (Plate II, Fig. 18).

Filamenta longa, recta vel curva, 17°:2-23 « lata; vagina distincta,
crassa ; trichomata attenuata ad apicem, non-constricta, 11-11°5 , lata;
cellulae 3°4-4 w longae, contentis granularibus, septis indistinctis ;
cellula terminalis rotundata; calyptra adest. Positus in Government
College, Hoshiarpur herbario sub numero Vasishta 32. |

Filaments long, straight or curved, 17:2-23 » broad ; sheath distinct,
thick ; trichomes attenuated at the ends, not constricted, 11-11°5
broad ; cells 3:4-4 . long, contents granular, septa indistinct ; end cell
rounded ; calyptra present.

Habitat : On moist soil, Hoshiarpur. September 24, 1960. Deposited
in Government College, Hoshiarpur herbarium under reference number
Vasishta 32.

The variety resembles the type in possessing : (a) unconstricted
trichomes that are slightly attenuated at the ends, (5) sheath hyaline
and unstained with chlor-zinc-iodide, (c) end cell rounded, and (d)
calyptra present ; but differs from it in the greater dimensions of the
filaments and the trichomes.

MICROCOLEUS Desmazieres

47. Microcoleus acutissimus Gardner in Mem. N. Y. Bot. Gdn.
7: 55, pl. 11, fig. 2, 1927; Desikachary 344, pl. 60, fig. 1, 1959.

Lat. filament = 19°2-34:5 jw; lat. trichome = 1°7-2°5 ~; long. cell
= 3°8-6°6 ;.; end cell acutely conical.

Habitat : On the moist steps of a tank at Una, Hoshiarpur. May 21,
1960.

Family NOSTOCACEAE Kiitzing

Subfamily ANABAENOIDAE

CYLINDROSPERMUM Kutzing

48. Cylindrospermum muscicola Born. et Flah. var. kasmiriense
Bharadwaja in Ann. Bot. Lond. 47: 117, figs. 1-2, 1933; Desikachary
367, pl. 64, figs. 3, 5, 12, 1959.

[ 32]

116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

Lat. trichome = 3°4-3°8 «1; long. cell = 3:8-7°6 4; lat. heterocyst
= 3°8-5:7 w; long. heterocyst = 7°6-9:5 ~; lat. spore = 6°6-7°38 “;
long. spore = 9°5-15°3 yw.

- Habitat : Along the sides of a stream at Dholbaha, Hoshiarpur.
June 5, 1960.

NOSTOC Vaucher

49. Nostoc linckia [Bornet ex] Born. et Flah. var. arvense Rao
in Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. B 6: 358, fig. 4A, 1937; Desikachary
377, pl. 67, fie, by 1959:

Lat. trichome = 3°4-4 uw; long. cell = 3°8-5°7 uw; lat. heterocyst
= 4-7°5 «; long. heterocyst = 4-7°6 4; lat. spore = 6°6-7°6 w; long.
spore = 6°6-8°5 pL.

Habitat : Forming blue-green patches on sandy soil submerged
under water, Dholbaha, Hoshiarpur. June 5, 1960.

50. Nostoc hataei Dixit in Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. B 3: 101, fig. 30,
1936; Desikachary 389, pl. 67, fig. 2, 1959.

Thallus gelatinous, hard, up to 2 cm. diam.; lat. trichome =
3°8-6°6 w; long. cell = 3°8-5:7 w; lat. heterocyst = 5°7-7°6 4 ; long.
heterocyst = 4°7-5:7 ; spores not observed.

Habitat: On stones in running water near Una, Hoshiarpur.
June 10, 1960.

ANABAENA Bory

51. Anabaena volzii Lemm. forma recta Kisselev in Acta Univers.
Asiae Mediae, ser. 12a, Geographica Taschkent, fasc. 9, 74, pl. 1, fig. 1,
1931; Elenkin, Monog. Cyano. pars spec. 1 : 773, 1938; Desikachary
403, 1959.

Lat. trichome = 4-5-7 4; lat. trichome at apex = 3:8; long.
cell = 8°5-15°3 #; lat. heterocyst = 5-7-7°6 #5 long. heterocyst
= 8°5-15.3 w; lat. spore = 11°5-15.3.; long. spore = 34-5-46 »;
epispore smooth.

Habitat : Attached to water plants in a pond at Nasrala, Hoshiar-
pur. October 3, 1960. The form is ES for the first time from the
Indian soil.

Subfamily AULOSIRAE Born. et Flah.

AULOSIRA Kirchner

52. Aulosira aenigmatica Fremy in Blumea Suppl. 2: 37, fig. ll,
1942 ; Desikachary 428, pl. 81, figs. 15, 17, 1959.
[33]

MORE CYANOPHYCEAE OF HOSHIARPUR : III 117

Lat. filament = 6°6-8°5 p; lat. trichome = 5:7-6°6 w; long. cell =
3°8-9°5 ; lat. heterocyst = 5°6-7°6 p; long. heterocyst = 7°6-8°5 p ; lat.
spore = 7:6-8°5 »; long. spore = 5°7-7°6 4; epispore yellowish brown
in mature spores.

Habitat : In rice fields; Hoshiarpur. September 20, 1960.

Family SCYTONEMATACEAE Rabenhorst

TOLYPOTHRIX Kiitzing

53. Tolypothrix byssoidea [Berk.] Kirchner in Engler et Prantl,
Naturlich. Pflanz. I, la: 80, 1900; Desikachary 502, pl. 103, figs. 3,4,7,
1959. Hassalia byssoidea Berk. in Hass. Brit. Freshw. Alg. 1: 233, pl.
67, fig. 5, 1845. —

Pat. tilament = 12°1-15:3 pg; lat. trichome = 10°5-11.5 « ; long. cell
= 3°8-5°7 w; lat. intercalary heterocyst = 12:7-14 »; long. intercalary
heterocyst = 11°5-12°4 ys; lat. basal heterocyst -= 11°5-12°4 »; long. |
basal heterocyst = 7°6-8°5 »; trichomes torulose; cells barrel-shaped ;
spores not seen.

Habitat: On tree trunks, Hoshiarpur. August 19,1960.

SCYTONEMA Agardh

54. Scytonema saleyeriense Weber Van Bosse in Siboga Exped. 31,
pl. 1, figs. 1-3, 1913 ; Desikachary 461, 1959.

Thallus brownish black or blue-green ; filaments 15:3-20 j broad,
false branches single or sometimes geminate; sheath thick, lamellate,
colourless, 3°8-4 ,. thick ; trichomes 10-12°1 « broad ; cells shorter than
long, rarely quadratic, 6°6-8°5 « long ; heterocysts intercalary, cylindrical
or quadratic, 11°5-14 , broad, 12:1-19:2 wu long.

Habitat : On moist walls, Government College, Hoshiarpur. August
13, 1960. The type is being recorded for the first time from India.

55. Scytonema chiastum Geitler in Pascher’s Susswasserflora,
12: 269, figs. 318-319, 1925; Kryptogamenflora, 750, figs. 478, 1932;
Desikachary 453, pl. 90, fig. 1, 1959.

Thallus floccose, blue-green ; filaments long, straight or flexuous, up
to 2 cm. long, 23-26°8 « broad ; false branches usually geminate, rarely
single, narrower than the main filament, up to 20 » broad; sheath
thick, lamellated, colourless, yellowish brown in older filaments;
trichomes blue-green, 18°3-20°8 ,. broad, blue-green, may or may not be
constricted ; cells shorter than broad, 6°6-11:5 « long ; heterocysts single
or many together, rounded-quadrate, rarely spherical or sub-spheri-
cal, 19°2-21:1 « broad, 18°3-26 ;. long ; reproduction by hormogones.

[ 34]

118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

_ Habitat: In rice fields, Hoshiarpur. September 21, 1960. The
type is being recorded for the first time from the Indian soil.

56. Scytonema pseudohofmanni Bharadwaja in Rev. Algol. Paris,
7: 167, fig. 4 E, F, 1934 ; Desikachary 478, pl. 94, fig. 2, 1959.

Lat. filament =11°5-13°6 4; lat. trichome = 6°6-7°6 1; long. cell =
7°6-9'5 & 3 crass. vag. = 1°7-3 3 lat,” heterocyst = 7:6-11°3 47 - lonme.
heterocyst = 7°6-15:3 wy. :

Habitat: Forming dark brown patches on the sides of a hillock at
Chak Saidu, Hoshiarpur. May 13, 1960.

Family RIVULARIACEAE Rabenhorst

RIVULARIA (Roth) Agardh

57. Rivularia aquatica De Wilde in Ann. Buitenz. 1:40, 1897;
Desikachary 552, 1959.

Thallus spherical, blue-green, gelatinous, up to 4 mm. broad, without
calcium incrustation ; filaments slightly adpressed, radially arranged ;
sheath hyaline, thin ; trichomes 7:6-9'5 « broad, ending-in a hair which
is 3°8 4 broad ; cells longer than broad at the base, up to 19:2 w long,
longer at the apex; heterocysts spherical, single, basal, 10°5-12-1 yu
diam. ; spores absent.

Habitat: Attached to submerged water plants in a pond at village
Nasrala, Hoshiarpur. October 3, 1960.

GLOEOTRICHIA Agardh

58. Gloeotrichia natans [Rabenh. ex] Born. et Flah. [Rabenhorst,
Kryptogamenflora, 90,1847]; Born. et -Flah. Nostoc. Heterocyst.
369, 1886; Desikachary 561, pl. 118, figs. 7, 15, 1959.

Lat. trichome = 7°6-9'5 »; long. cell = 5°7-13°4 pp; diam. hetero-
cyst = 11°5 »; lat. spore = 15°3-19'2 »; lat. spore with sheath =
31°5-34'4 4 ; long. spore = 40-76°8 »; sheath brown and transversely
constricted.

Habitat: Attached to submerged plants in a roadside pond,
Hoshiarpur. November 3, 1960.

The spores in the Hoshiarpur alga are less longer but the dimen-
sions of other parts agree with the type. Transversely constricted
sheath confirms its inclusion in Gloeotrichia natans.

Family MICROCHAETACEAE Lemmermann

MICROCHAETE Thuret
59. Mlicrochaete uberrima Carter in Rec. Bot. Surv. India 9: 268,
pl. 1, figs. 1-3, 1926; Desikachary 511, pl. 104, figs. 5-7, 1959,
[35]

MORE CYANOPHYCEAE OF HOSHIARPUR ; Il 119

Long. filament = up to 4.5mm.; lat. filament=16°2-18 ,»; lat.
trichome = 12-4-13-2 » ; long. cell = 6°7-11°5 1; crass. vag. = 1:9-2°5 2;
lat. heterocyst = 15°3 »; long. heterocyst = 15:3 y«; lat. spore =
13:2-15°3 p ; long. spore = 13°2-23 p.

Habitat : From the bottom of a pond, Village Purhiran, Hoshiar-
pur. September 15, 1959.

Order STIGONEMATALES Geitler

Family STIGONEMATACEAE Kirchner
HAPLOSIPHON Nageli

60. Haplosiphon intricatus W. et G.S. West in Jour. Linn. Soc. Bot.
Lond. 30:271, pl. 15, figs. 16-28, 1894; Desikachary 591, pl. 129, figs.
1-3, 1959.

Lat. main filament = 5:7-6°6 »; lat. lateral branch = 5°7-6°6 4;
long. cell = 7°6-9°5 «; lat. heterocyst = 5:7-6°6 «; long. heterocyst =
8°5-15°3 p.

Habitat : On the gelatinous thallus of Aphanothece naegellii, Hos-
hiarpur. August 28, 1960.

SYNOPSIS

The present communication incorporates records and descriptions of
60 species belonging to 21 genera. One new species, seven new varieties
and five new forms have been included in this work.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to express his sincerest thanks to Rev. Fr.
H. Santapau, St. Xavier’s College, Bombay, for rendering into Latin
the new diagnoses. His grateful thanks are also due to Prof. B. R.
Vasishta of M. M. Degree College, Modinagar, for going through the
manuscript and giving useful suggestions.

[ 36]

Marine Timber-Boring Organisms
of the Indian Coast >

Report on a Collection from the South-East
Coast of India, with Notes on Distribution
in the Indo-Pacific Area

N. BALAKRISHNAN NAIR
; )
Oceanographic Laboratory, University of Kerala, Ernakulam

INTRODUCTION

Earlier studies along the east and west coasts of India have shown
that timber-boring animals cause extensive damage to all sorts of
marine underwater structures made of timber (Nair 1961). Systemati-
cally, the timber-borers constitute a heterogeneous assemblage repre-
senting at least two phyla and eight genera in the Indian waters all
sharing a common habitat and working together in the destruction of
wood in sea-water, in brackish water, and even in fresh water. The
phylum Mollusca is represented mainly by four genera, namely Bankia,
Nausitora, and Teredo, which constitute the family Teredinidae or
shipworms, and the genus Martesia of the family Pholadidae or
piddocks. The crustacean wood-borers are mainly confined to the
order Isopoda and are represented by the two well-known genera
Sphaeroma and Limnoria. Four species and one variety of Sphaeroma
and nine species of Limnoria have been reported from India. The
amphipod borer Chelura has not yet been recorded from the Indian
coast.

The nature of attack by the molluscs differs from that bv the
crustaceans and produces different effects on the timber, thus enabling
them to share without serious competition a habitat which is limited
in extent. While the crustaceans work from the outside, the molluscs
penetrate deep into the heart of the timber. The combined action of
the two groups of borers converts the wood into a highly porous,

MARINE TIMBER-BORING ORGANISMS OF THE INDIAN COAST 121

fragile, and honeycombed mass. The limnoriids even enter the
creosoted shell of treated timber but the shipworm larvae seem unable
to do this. As suggested by Menzies (1957), this may be due to the ,
fact that teredines penetrate the wood as larval forms whereas
the crustaceans penetrate the wood as adults. The shipworms are
important destroyers of timber, since the growth of these highly
specialised wood-borers is directly related to the damage they effect
on timber and each shipworm during its lifetime destroys a column
of wood of the same dimensions as itself. The piddocks are also
equally important because of their wide distribution, density of attack,
quick development, rapid succession of generations, and high tolerance
of lower salinities (Nagabhushanam 1955). Even though the bore
hole of the piddock is much smaller than that of the shipworm and
does not usually exceed the sizg»of the animal itself, the noteworthy
feature is that each generation penetrates deeper and deeper, thereby
considerably reducing the useful period of timber structures. Among
the crustacean borers along the Indian coasts those of the genus
Sphaeroma are the most important owing to their larger size, the burrow
being about twice as large as the body, the high density of settlement,
and the rapid rate of reproduction. Further, these crustaceans can
also tolerate great reduction in the salinity of the medium which
enables them to spread to the brackish waters. Three species are
commonly met with in Indian waters, namely S. terebrans, S.
annandalei, and S. walkeri. The genus Limnoria which is a very
serious timber-borer in the higher latitudes is not a serious pest in
Indian waters, even though nine species have so far been recorded
(including those from Minicoy and the Andamans). They are Limnoria
pfefferi Stebbing, L. insulae Menzies, L. wunicornis Menzies, L.
platycauda Menzies, L. indica Becker & Kampf, L. bituberculata Pillai,
L. tripunctata Menzies, L. septima Barnard, and L. bombayensis
Pillai. This small isopod is capable of effecting a progressive tunnel-
ling action on wood and can make a burrow many times the length of
its body. Metaponorthus and Melita have also been reported as
capable of boring wood but are not serious ‘pests.

Taxonomic studies have shown (Nair 1961) that at least 28 species of
shipworms occur and are active in the Indian waters and constitute
one of the most important and highly destructive timber borers along
our coasts. They attack and destroy a wide variety of timber
structures. It is probable that an extensive search of the wooden
underwater structures along the Indian coast, the driftwood cast ashore
during the monsoon, and particularly the water-logged timber that
can be obtained by dredging would yield very valuable material

122. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

which may expand this list still further. Several expeditions have
reported the occurrence of remnants of plant material of land origin in
deep water, particularly in theetropics, and the hauls from some parts
of the deep sea are extraordinarily rich in different species of plant
material and marine boring organisms. Such materials have neither
been collected nor studied in any detail from the neighbourhood of
India. The data would provide valuable material for understanding
the nature, occurrence, distribution, and dispersal of wood borers in
these waters. It is of interest to note that all the 17 species of
Xylophaga, a wood-boring genus collected from the deep sea during
the Galathea Expedition (Knudsen 1961), were new to science, which
shows that the forms occurring in these habitats are quite different
from those that occur in driftwood or in shallow waters.

Further most surveys of marine ®Wood-boring organisms have been
restricted to easily accessible sea-coasts and protected harbour
areas, where test boards can be easily installed and examined
as and when desired. Moreover, the destruction which these
borers cause is chiefly detected on the harbour constructions,
such as piers and wharves, which quickly attract the attention of
harbour engineers and industrialists interested in waterfront structures.
So our information about these pests is chiefly confined to their ecology
near the narrow coastal zones and harbours. Their occurrence, dis-
tribution, relative abundance, conditions of life, and survival during
the larval stages, soon after settlement on wood, and also the repro-
ducing adult stages in the environment of the distant off-shore waters
are all imperfectly understood.

A careful study of the reports from the east and west coasts of
India and the neighbouring areas indicates that many of these wood-
boring animals are widely distributed not only along the coasts of
India but also in the Indo-Pacific area extending from the east African
coasts, through Indonesia, to Samoa and Hawaii.

The present account is based on a collection of wood-boring
animals made during December 1961 and February 1962 from two
localities, namely Pamban on the Rameswaram Island and Keelakkarai
near Ramnad on the south-east coast of India. It is hoped that this
report, though not exhaustive, will be beneficial to zoologists, since
this and adjacent areas particularly Krusadai are visited by a large
number of scientists every vear. The fauna of Krusadai studied in
great detail for the last several years does not include a_ single
shipworm. as

MARINE TIMBER-BORING ORGANISMS OF THE INDIAN COAST 123

WooD-BORING MOLLUSCS

Family PHOLADIDAE

This family is represented by the Genus Martesia and two species
are present in the collection, namely Martesia striata and Martesia
fragilis.

Genus Martesia Sowerby
Subgenus Martesia Sowerby

1. Martesia (Martesia) striata (Linné)

1758. Pholas striata Linné, Syst. Nat. ed. 10: 669.

Occurrence. Several specimens were collected from old piles
(Borassus flabellifer) both from Pamban and Keelakkarai. Specimens
(shells only) have also been collected from driftwood of the following
species cast ashore, Mangifera sp., Casuarina sp., Acacia sp.,
Bamboosa sp.

Previous records from India. Madras, Porto-Novo, ‘Tuticorin,
Kayankulam (west coast), Cochin Harbour, Bombay, Visakhapatnam,
Krishna estuary, and Krusadai.

Distribution. Eastern Pacific, Indo-Pacific, Western Atlantic.

2. Martesia (Martesia) fragilis Verrill & Bush

1890. Martesia (Martesiella) fragilis Verrill & Bush, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.
20: 777.

Occurrence. Several specimens were obtained from a drift log
(timber undetermined) cast ashore on Keelakkarai beach on 19 February
1964.

Previous. records from India. Porto-Novo, Madras, Cochin.

Timber known to be attacked. Myristica fragrans, Mangifera
indica, Bamboosa sp.

Distribution. Western Atlantic, Eastern Pacific.

Family ‘TEREDINIDAE

This family includes the well-known shipworms and are the most
important of the wood-borers collected.. The genera Bankia and

124 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

Teredo are represented in the collection, the former by four species
and the latter by eight species.

Genus Bankia Gray
Subgenus Bankia Gray

1. Bankia (Bankia) bipalmulata (Lamarck)
1801. Teredo bipalmulata Lamarck, Systéme des Animaux sans Vertébres: 129.

Occurrence. Three specimens were collected from a log of
Cedrela toona cast ashore during December 1961 at Pamban. Dry
shells and pallets have also been recovered from driftwood such as
Shorea sp. and other as yet undetermined timber.

Previous records from India. Pondicherry, Madras, Kovilam.

Distribution. East African coast: Tanganika (Tanga); Sumatra
(Babalan, Soeng Sang); Philippines (Mindoro); New Guinea (Manok-
wari); New Hebrides (Espiritu Santo); New Caledonia; Hawaii (Oahu).

Subgenus Bankiella Bartsch

2. Bankia (Bankiella) indica Nair
1954. Bankia (Bankiella) indica Nair, Rec. Ind. Mus. 52 : 393.

Occurrence. Several specimens were collected from a piece of
driftwood cast ashore at Pamban.

Timber known to be attacked. Cedrela toona, Borassus flabellifer,
Melia composita, Albizzia moluccana, Shorea robusta, Hopea sp.

Previous records from India. Madras, Adirampatnam, Cochin.

Distribution. Felix Roch (1961) feels that the form under con-
sideration is probably a synonym of Bankia carinata. B. carinata has
been recorded from the following places, namely Reunion, Malacca,
the Sunda Islands, and New Guinea.

Subgenus Neobankia Bartsch
3. Bankia (Neobankia) nordi Moll

1935. Bankia (Neobankia) nordi Moll, Sitz.-Ber. Akad. Wiss. Wier, Math.-Natw.
KI. 1 (144): 272. |

Occurrence. Two pallets were collected from the roots of Pandanus
sp. cast ashore at Pamban. |

Previous records from India. This is the first record of this species ©
from India.

Distribution. Sumatra (Balawan Deli, Tandjoeng Balei): Singa-
pore; Rhiouw Archipelago; New Guinea (Fak Fak). 7

MARINE TIMBER-BORING ORGANISMS OF THE INDIAN COAST 125
Subgenus Plumulella Clench & Turner

4. Bankia (Plumulella) lineata Nair
1955. Bankia (Neobankia) lineata Nair, J. Madras. Univ. 25B : 109.

Occurrence. ‘Two specimens were collected from a log of Cedrela
ftoona cast ashore at Pamban. Shells and paliets have also been

recovered from driftwood (probably Rhizophora sp.) from the same
locality. |

Previous records from India. Madras, Visakhapatnam.

Genus Teredo Linneé

Subgenus Teredo S. Str. Linné

5. Teredo (Teredo) madrasensis Nair
1954. Teredo (Teredo) madrasensis Nair, Rec. Ind. Mus. 52: 401.
Occurrence. Several shells and pallets were obtained from pieces
of driftwood cast ashore at Pamban.

Previous records from India. Madras, ‘Kayankulam, Tondi,
Adirampatnam. |

Timber known to be attacked. Cedrelu toona, Mangifera indica,
Borassus flabellifer, Tectona grandis, Shorea sp., Terminalia sp.

Subgenus Teredothyra Bartsch

6. Teredo (Teredothyra) indomalaica Roch
1935. Teredo (Teredothyra) indomalaica Roch, Sitz.-Ber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math.-
Natw. Kl. 1 (144): 264.

Occurrence.: Two pairs of pallets from a piece of driftwood
(Shorea sp. ?) cast ashore at Pamban.

Previous records from India. Nil.

Distribution. Madagascar, Malacca, Singapore, Rhiouw Archi-
pelago, Tandjoeng Penang, Sumatra (Oleh Lheue).

Subgenus Lyrodus Gould

7. Teredo (Lyrodus) malaccana Roch

1935. Teredo (Lyrodus) malaccana Roch, Sitz.-Ber. Akad. Wiss. Wien., Math
Natw. KI. 1 (144) : 269.

Occurrence. Several pairs of pallets were collected from pieces of
driftwood (Shorea sp. ?, Myristica fragrans, Bamboosa sp.) at
Pamban. A set of four live specimens were collected from the branch
of a tree cast ashore at Keelakkarai.

126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

Previous records from India. Visakhapatnam, Mandapam, Cochin,
Bombay. ,

Distribution. Suez Canal (Ismailia), Aden, East African coast:
Kenya (Mombasa), Tanganika (Tanga), Madagascar, Rhiouw Archi-
pelago, Tandjoeng Penang, Singapore, Sumatra (Oleh Lheue, Belawan
Deli), Java (Surabaja), Borneo (Kota Baru), New Guinea (Fak Fak).

Subgenus Coeloteredo Bartsch

8. Teredo (Coeloteredo) singaporeana Roch

1935. Teredo (Coeloteredo) singaporeana Roch, Sitz.-Ber. Akad. Wiss. Wien,
Math.-Natw. KI. 1 (144) : 266.

Occurrence. Four specimens were collected from the floating
branch of a tree at Pamban.

Previous records from India. Visakhapatnam.

Distribution. East African coast: Kenya (Mombasa), Tanganika
(Tanga, Pangani), Port Durban, Madagascar, Malacca, Singapore,
Rhiouw Archipelago, Sumatra (Sabang, Emmahaven). Lombok
(Ampenan).

9. Teredo (Coeloteredo) renschi Roch

1935. Teredo (Coeloteredo) renschi Roch, Sitz.-Ber. Akad. Wiss. Wien., Math.
Natw. KI. 1 (144) : 267.

Occurrence. Two specimens from the bark of a palm tree
(Borassus flabellifer) cast ashore at Keelakkarai.

Previous records from India. Mandapam, Cochin.

Distribution.. Rhiouw Archipelago, Singapore, Sumatra (Sabang),
Java (Surabaja), Flores (Endeh).

Subgenus Kuphus Guettard

10. Teredo (Kuphus) manni Wright
1866. Kuphus ? manni Wright, Trans. Linn. Soc. London 25 : 565. f

Occurrence. Two pallets were obtained from a piece of driftwood,
Tectona grandis, cast ashore at Keelakkarai.

Previous records from India. Bombay, Visakhapatnam, Cochin.

Distribution. East African coast: Kenya (Mombasa), Tanganika
(Tanga, Pangani), Mozambique (Mayotte, San Diego, Beira, Tonga-
land), Kerimba Islands, Madagascar, Reunion, Cochin China, Burma
(Tavoy), Malacca, Singapore, Rhiouw Archipelago, Sumatra (Babalan,
Belawan Deli, Pantai Tjermin, Soeng Sang, Langsa River), Tandjoeng
Penang, Celebes (Moena), Moluccas (Amboina), Borneo (Kota Baru),

MARINE TIMBER-BORING ORGANISMS OF THE INDIAN COAST 127

Java (Surabaja), New Guinea (Fak Fak, Meranke, Hollandia Harbour,
Seegarbui), Philippines (Luzon, Palawan), Bismarck Archipelago,
Australia (Queensland). .

Subgenus Uperotus Guettard

11. Teredo (Uperotus) clava Gmelin

1791. Teredo clava Gmelin, Syst. Nat., ed. 13, : 3748.

Occurrence. Several specimens were collected from the floating
seeds of mangrove from both Pamban and Keelakkarai.

Previous records from India. Madras, Karaikal, Pondicherry,
Tranquebar.

Distribution. East African coast: Cape Province (Port Elizabeth),
Natal, Mauritius, Ceylon, Java, Moluccas (Amboina), Philippines,
Australia (Queensland, Sydney).

Subgenus Dactyloteredo Roch

12. Teredo (Dactyloteredo) diederichseni Roch

1929. Teredo (Dactyloteredo) diederichseni Roch, Mitt. Zool. Staatsinst. Zool.
Mus. Hamburg. 44 : 6.

Occurrence. Several shells and pallets were collected from a big
drift log (timber undetermined) cast ashore at Pamban.

Previous records from India. Madras, Cochin. *

Distribution. Philippines, the Sunda Islands, Phoenix Islands
(Canton), Midway Islands, Wake Islands, Hawaii Islands (Kuai, Oahu,
Maui, Hilo, Johnston).

WoopD-BORING CRUSTACEANS

One species of Limnoria and two species of Sphaeroma are re-
presented in the collection.

Family LIMNORHDAE

Genus Limnoria Leach

Subgenus Limnoria Menzies

1. Limnoria (Limnoria) indica Becker & Kampf

1957. Limoria (Limnoria) indica Becker & Kampf, Journal of the Timber Dryers
and Preservers Association of India 5 (1) : 12-17.

Occurrence. Six specimens were collected from green twigs cast
ashore at Keelakkarai. All specimens were alive when collected.

128 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

Their burrows were shallow just beneath the bark of the twigs and the
infestation was light. |
Previous records from India. Mandapam camp, Madras Harbour.

Family SPHAEROMIDAE

Genus Sphaeroma Bosc
2. Sphaeroma walkeri Stebbing

1905. Sphaeroma walkeri Stebbing, Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fishery Suppl. Rep.
PRS PRON

Occurrence. Two specimens both in a dried condition were
collected from a drift log cast ashore at Pamban.

Previous records from India. Neendakara near Quilon, Bombay,
Madras, Visakhapatnam.

Distribution. Ceylon, Suez, Egypt, New South Wales, South
Africa.

3. Sphaeroma terebrans Bate
1866. Sphaeroma terebrans Bate, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. 3 (17) : 28.

Occurrence. Several specimens were collected in a dry condition
from a large drift log cast ashore at Pamban.

Previous records from India. Backwaters of Travancore-Cochin,
Madras, Mandapam, Bombay.

Distribution. Mediterranean, Mozambique, Zanzibar, North and
South Africa, Ceylon, Queensland, Florida, and Brazil.

129

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REFERENCES

BECKER, G. & KAmprF, W. D. (1957) :
The wood-destroying isopod genus
Limnoria at the continental coast of India
and description of Limnoria indica sp.n.
J. Timb. Dr. Pres. Ass. India 5 (1) : 12-17.

KNUDSEN, J. (1961) : The bathyal and
abyssal Xylophaga. Pholadidae, Bivalvia.
Galathea Report, 5, Scientific Results of
the Danish Deep Sea Expedition round
the World, 1950-52: 163-209.

Menzies, R. J. (1957) : The marine
borer family Limnoriidae (Crustacea,
Isopoda). Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf and
Caribbean 7 (2) : 101-200.

NAGABHUSHANAM, R. (1955): Tole-
rance of the marine wood borer Martesia
striata (Linn.) to waters of low salinity.
J. zool. Soc. India 7 (1) : 83-86.

Narr, N. BALAKRISHNAN (1954) : Ship-
worms from India. Rec. Ind. Mus. 52
(2-4) : 387-414.

(1955) : On a new species of
shipworm of the subgenus Neobankia
from Madras. J. Madras Univ. 25B (1) :
109-113.

(1956) : Destruction of timber
structures by shipworms in Madras
waters. J. sci. industr. Res. 15C (3):

81-82.
(1956) : The development of

the wood-boring pelecypod Bankia indica
Nair. J. Madras Univ. 26B (2) : 303-318.

Nair, N. BALAKRISHNAN (1961) : Some
aspects of the marine borer problem in
India. J. sci. industr. Res. 20A (10):
584-591.

— (1964) : Some observations
on the problem of marine timber destroy-
ing organisms of Indian Coasts. Fishery
Technology 1 (1) : 87-97.

PILLAI, N. K. (1955) : Wood-boring
crustacea of Travancore. I. Sphaeromidae.
Bull. Centr. Res. Inst. Trivandrum 4 (1) :
127-139.

Rocu, F. (1955) : Die Terediniden ost-
und westindiens der MHollandischen
museums-sammlungen zu Amsterdam
und Leiden. Zod!. Meded. Leiden 34 (8) :
125-151.

———— (1961): Die Terediniden der
Sunda-Inslen und Neu-Guineas. Beaufor-
tia, Zool. Mus. Amsterdam 9 (95) : 7-48.

TURNER, R. D. (1955): The Family
Pholadidae in the western Atlantic and
the eastern Pacific, Part II. Johnsonia,
Museum of Comparative Zoology, Har-
vard University 3 (34) : 65-160.

WRIGHT, E. P. (1866) : Contributions
to a Natural History of the Teredidae.
Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. Zool. 25:561-568.

Reviews

1. THE WORLD OF THE TIGER. By Richard | Perry.
pp. xii-+263 (22X15 cm.). London, 1964. Cassell & Co. Price 30s.

It gives one pleasure to read this book as, in the main, the subject
has been well and accurately presented and developed. involving some
research and investigation. But, in parts of the book accuracy has
been interwoven with fantasy; this I feel must somewhat lower the
worth of the work to readers with experience of the tiger in India,
while no doubt enhancing its value to the majority of its readers.

The author observes in his introduction that the close of this
century may see the end of the tiger in its wild state in India, except
for a few in Sanctuaries and National Parks. In the first chapter he
estimates that the number of tiger in India is now less than four
thousand. I do not think there is much risk of the tiger disappearing
from India within the next 36 to 40 years. a

Nowadays the danger facing the tiger’s existence in India is not so
much the ‘sportsman’s’ gun, even though more than 400 tigers are, we
are told, still being shot annually. The threat lies in the activities of
game poachers all over India. Even assuming there are only about
4000 tigers left in the sub-continent, which I consider an underestimate,
and that some 50% of these are tigresses, the natural increase should
suffice to keep the number well above the killings. The menace to
the tiger’s survival in India is the rapid extermination by poachers
of its natural food, deer and pig, and the extension of cultivation into
what are the tiger’s domains. It is a provision of nature that as a
predator’s natural food supply decreases so does the size of its litters.
Even so, the jungles covering the tiger’s habitat are so vast, and parts
of them so difficult of access to the poacher, that another 100 years
or more should still find tiger ranging over large areas of forest.

The author is probably right in agreeing with Corbett that most
mian-eaters have become so ‘by accident’, in that this expression
covers a wide field. For instance, a great increase in man-eating
tigers was recorded soon after the Great Indian Famine, due no doubt
to tigers feeding on the abandoned dead and dying all over the
country-side. In fact, man-eaters became such a scourge, even in
south India, that District Officers issued village headmen with phials
of strychnine to be used on human and cattle kills. Some villages
were abandoned in S. India and the man-eaters’ victims included

REVIEWS 133

‘Roman Catholic priests, pilgrims to temples and shrines, and travellers.
Stone cairns, as described by the author, can be seen—-as well as
carved slabs depicting a hunter, or attacked man, driving a spear into
a tiger.

The author observes that, though a tiger in India may kill during
the day, it will not eat till after dark. This is usually the case, but
the exception is not uncommon; indeed he gives instances of tiger
in India eating in daylight.

Again a tiger's ‘pooking’ is, surely. a call of suspicion and un-
certainty, far more likely to drive away sambar than to attract them.

While I do not claim that tiger have no sense of smell at all, I
must disagree with the author’s conclusions on this point. Tiger have
a good ‘hound’ sense of smell, that is to say ground, and near-ground,
scent. That a tiger can smell a putrid kill is surely no argument; so
can we humans. A human can also smell tiger, gaur, sambar, and
elephant on entering an area in which they have been shortly before.
But this does not mean we can wind these animals from a distance;
. nor has it been my experience that tiger can. The tiger can see quite
a distance in the dark, even on a ‘pitch black night’; otherwise how
does a tiger travel long distances, and that through heavy forest, on
such nights?

The author refers to the failure of a tiger to return to its kill.
Surely, one of the commonest causes is the removal of the kill by
men of the low caste communities. This applies particularly to cattle
kills. The tiger has learned from experience that it will find no kill.
Colonies of these low caste people live outside most hamlets, and pay
herdsmen for information about kills, and also for the victims’ hides.

Are ‘alligators’ to be found in India? I think not; crocodiles, yes.

The author has been at pains to describe the habits of tiger,
including man-eaters, and quotes at length from other writers’ books.
I am sure he realises that some of the incidents retailed are not
necessarily related to facts; but, as I have observed at the outset, this
may not affect the ‘readable’ value of the book.

R.C.M.

2, THE MOUNTAIN GORILLA. By George B. Schaller. pp.
431 (23-5X15-5 cm.). 35 Plates. Chicago, 1963. The University of
Chicago Press. Price $ 10.

Since its discovery in the middle of the last century, the Gorilla
has remained an object of fascination to man by its size, by its rather

134° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

human appearance, and to its misfortune by the distortion of what
little was known of it to present an animal of magnificent strength
that apparently resented approach by twisting guns and mangling its
human pursuers. Dr. Schaller’s book, the first authentic and detailed
study of the animal in the field, finally lays to rest the many misconcep-
tions regarding a rather peaceful and solemn animal—a classic instance
of ‘a good story being spoilt by an eye witness’.

This remarkable book records the study of the ecology and
behaviour of the Mountain Gorilla made by Dr. Schaller over a period
of twenty months in its natural habitat in eastern Congo, western
Uganda, and western Ruanda, primarily in the Virunga Volcanoes |
area. His only ‘weapons’ were a pair of binoculars and enormous
patience. The difficulties of observing the animal in its natural habitat
can be appreciated from the fact that he had only 466 hours of direct
observation of the animal during the twenty months he was in the field.
In this period of study he habituated six groups of the animals to
his presence very near to them. The observations are described and
analysed in the sequence of: Methods, Distribution and Ecology, the
Animals, Population Density, Structure, and Behaviour, Responses
to Environment, Conservation, Summary. Tables and Appendices
on skull measurements, weather data, light readings, and an account
of the original discovery of the Mountain Gorilla complete’ the text.
The complete literature on the Mountain Gorilla, including an article
in the Journal of the Bombay Naturai History Society, is available in
the Bibliography.

The picture of the animal that emerges from the study is of a
peaceful and ‘introverted’ vegetarian living within a home range of
10 to 15 square miles in small family groups composed of a dominant
silverback or fully adult male, other silverbacks and younger black-
backed males in a linear hierarchy, and several females and young,
leisurely foraging in the midst of an abundance of food (Dr. Schaller
collected 100 species of plants used as food by the animal), building
nests out of the undergrowth to rest in during the day and at night. It
is a solemn animal that ceases to play at the age of six, living at peace
with its environment. The ‘beating of the chest’ which has become
so much a part of the Gorilla legend, though occasionally an act of
intimidation, is usually a ‘displacement activity’, a release for tension
comparable to the slamming of a door by an irate husband leaving
the scene of a marital squabble.

In Dr. Schaller’s opinion there is no immediate danger of the
animal becoming extinct, though considerable inroads have been
made into its habitat by agriculturists and pastoralists. One hopes

REVIEWS 135

that, in the present unsettled political conditions and the consequent
availability of arms to persons who would not normally have them,
the animal will not be one of the national assets sacrificed before
stability is attained.

The book is an invaluable guide to those who wish to undertake
such field studies which are a crying need in our country.

JCD.

3. THE CAMELLIA TREASURY. By Mrs. Paul Kincaid.
pp. 224 (24x17 cm.). 16 colour and 88 monochrome plates. New
York, 1964. Hearthside Press Inc. Price $ 9-95.

This well-illustrated book by a Camellia lover covers a very wide
field including the history of Camellia growing, the Camellia in land-
scape gardening, cultivation in the open and in greenhouses, Bonsai,
propagation, showing and flower arrangement. It is not possible to
deal with all these subjects in much detail in a book of which the text
is confined to about 210 pages. That is the book’s chief failing—-
trying to deal with too much. However, some very useful information
is contained in it, particularly in the chapter on propagation, making the
book valuable for any gardener.

The Camellia, a native of China and Japan, has achieved a good
deal of popularity in the United States, southern Europe, Australia,
and New Zealand, apart from the countries of its origin. In the U.S.A.
many Camellia societies exist. Northern Europe and northern North
America are too cold for outdoor growing and the plains of India too hot.
Yet, Mrs. Kincaid records that her plants have withstood a minimum
temperature of 2° F. and a maximum of 106° F.

Speaking of the plant, which is not very well known in India, the
author writes: “The perfection of form, flower and foliage in the
- Camellia shrub is equalled by no other plant. Although much
admired for its flowers—it would be an empress even for this one
quality—the beauty of the plant in the landscape, and its aristocratic
behaviour with a minimum of maintenance have given it exalted rank
with many connoisseurs of the world’s flora.’ It is not surprising
that this flower is very highly rated by flower arrangers, specially in
Japan.

One half of the book is devoted to flower arrangements, and the
majority of the photographs are of the author’s own arrangements.
The opinion of an expert on flower arrangement is that, here again,

136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

Mrs. Kincaid has attempted to cover too much ground. She deals
with so many styles that the beginner will feel confused and be unable
to learn any one of them with the help of this book. :

Some of the arrangements in the photographs are very beautiful.

Mrs. Kincaid provides. a list of 173 varieties of Camellias for
outdoor growing, which she has grown in her own garden in North
Carolina, and a further 25 varieties for greenhouse growing.
Obviously, plant breeders have been at work on the Camellia. The
colours produced are white, cream, light and deep pink to red and
blackish crimson. Some varieties are striped, spotted, or edged with
different colours. An orchid pink and a lavender pink are also
mentioned.

In concluding, it is interesting to recall that the Camellia, a ralltite
of tea, reached the West in a peculiar way. Some merchants in
Britain ordered tea plants from China around 1720, as this drink was
becoming very popular. The Chinese merchants, jealously guarding
their monopoly, substituted Camellia plants, and thus this a, popular
ornamental reached Europe.

AJA.

~- 4 ANIMAL POPULATIONS: By T. O. Browning. pp. 127
(19X12 cm.). London, 1963. Hutchinson & Co. Price 12s. 6d. (in
U.K. only). .

Occasionally one has the pleasure of reading a book that presents
the subject with absolute clarity. This book is one among them.
Dr. Browning, within the few pages of this slim volume, introduces
the Ecology of Animals as a quantitative and experimental branch of
science through the study of animal populations. To introduce the
complex problems of the subject and to develop an understanding of
the concepts, the first chapter describes in detail the ecology of the
sheep tick Ixodes ricinus in Great Britain. The next two chapters
deal with the: concepts of populations and environment. The _ tive
categories of the latter, weather, resources, members of the same
species, members of other species, and hazards are examined in detail
and illustrated with examples in the five chapters that follow. The
interaction of environmental factors and self-regulatory mechanisms
are explained separately, and the book ends with a chapter on man’s
place in animal ecology and the ecology of man.

The book is exceedingly good as introductory reading and the: list
of references augments its -value. To those interested: in Natural

REVIEWS 137

History, the book offers the methods to develop their interest into an
exact science. Ecology is a subject which has very little following
in India though the scope is vast, and it is hoped that there will be
more emphasis in future on field studies of the type mentioned in
the book.

RED:

5. THE OXFORD BOOK OF BIRDS. Illustrations by Donald
Watson. Text by Bruce Campbell. pp. xvit+207 (24X17 cm.).
96 colour plates and several black-and-white sketches. London, 1964.
Oxford University Press. Price 35s. net.

Within the last year or two a spate of excellent and profusely
illustrated bird books has appeared, and those with limited purses have
to be choosy in their purchases. A glance at this book left me with
no alternative. Every bird that has been authentically recorded in
the British Isles is described, and about 320 different species are
illustrated in colour; where the sexes differ, both the male and the
female are shown, and also in many cases the immature plumages.
In most cases the background of the picture depicts the kind of
country where the species is to be found. This and the off-set
printing completely remove the shiny ‘glare’ which is almost invariably
present in books with coloured illustrations.

The text is apt and concise and relates to the species illustrated
‘on the opposite page—in a few instances it is not easy to determine
to which picture the caption applies.

A simple ‘method has been devised to show at the end of the
text relating to each species (a) the months during which it can be
seen in Britain, (b) when eggs or young in the nest may be seen, and
(c) when their songs may be heard, for instance:

on Or oe 8 IO CZ)

indicates a summer visitor which is not seen in January, February,
and December, and only occasionaily in March and November. Its
song may be heard from April to July (underlined), and eggs and
young found from May to July (in bold type).

A short introduction covers the different families, and the main
external parts of a bird are illustrated. At the end, short chapters on
Special Features of Bird Anatomy, Flight, Behaviour and Breeding,
Migration, Numbers and Age, and Suggestions for Further Reading
complete an. exceptionally attractive book,

H.A.

138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

6. A NEW DICTIONARY OF BIRDS. Edited by Sir A.
Landsborough Thomson. pp. 928 (c. 25X18:5 cm.). 16 coloured
plates, 48 pp. of photographs. London, 1964. Thos. Nelson & Sons
Ltd. Price 105s. net.

One of the three special enterprises undertaken by the British
Ornithologists’ Union to celebrate its centenary in 1959 was the
preparation of a comprehensive book of reference for everyone
interested in birds throughout the world. This was also to be by way
of tribute to Prot. Alfred Newton, F.R.S., who was one of the founders
of the Union and author of A DICTIONARY OF BIRDS (1896). In spite
of the revolutionary developments in the science of ornithology since
that time, the old dictionary still remains a classic of ornithological
literature and an indispensable reference for the serious bird student
of today.

A NEW DICTIONARY is not merely a revised edition of the old. For

One thing, unlike its prototype it is not the work of practically a single
author but represents the contributions of some 200 of the world’s
foremost ornithologists, many of whom are specialists in their own
fields.
As the Editorial Introduction explains, the aim of the book is to
provide authoritative information to the ornithologist outside his
restricted field of specialization, to the biologist who wishes to draw
upon the specialized subject matter of ornithology, as well as to the
more serious non-professional lover of birds. How admirably it
fulfils this aim and purpose will be obvious to everyone who turns
over its pages. The information provided is of two kinds: (a) on
general subjects relating to birds as a Class, and (b) on the different
kinds of birds according to families.

Under General Subjects come topics like Morphology, Systematics
and Evolution, Distribution/and Ecology, Ethology (Behaviour), Birds and
Man. A separate list of the major articles on general subjects is given
in order ‘to indicate the entries most suitable for deliberate reading
as distinct from quick reference on occasion’. To give an example,
under Distribution and Ecology the following topics are mentioned:
Distribution: Geographicai Distribution, Palaearctic Region, Ethiopian
Region, Malagasy Region, Oriental Region, Australian Region,
Nearctic Region, Neotropical Region, Oceanic Birds, Antarctic, Range
Expansion, Mapping. Migration: Migration, Irruption, Navigation,
Moon Watching, Radar, Observatory, Ringing, Trapping. Environ-
mental Influences: Climatology, Meteorology, Geological Factors,
Vegetation. Ecology and Populations: Ecology, Breeding Season,

REVIEWS 139

Predation, Numbers, Census, Count, Population Dynamics, Expecta-
tion of Life, Palatability of Birds and Eggs, Pollinators and Distributors.
Parasites and Diseases: Ectoparasite, Endoparasite, Disease.

Many of the major articles are of encyclopaedia length and,
together with the copious cross references and the selected bibliography
given at the end of each, they furnish sufficiently adequate informa-
tion on the topic concerned. The task of editing, moderating,
reconciling, and cross-referring this vast mass of heterogeneous material
received from nearly 200 individual contributors, in addition to much
else from the editor’s own pen, must have been truly stupendous and
formidable. Few others could have undertaken the responsibility and
discharged it with such dedication and masterly skill as Sir A.
Landsborough Thomson—himself one of the world’s outstanding
ornithologists. An old Arab proverb deplores how seldom the Time,
the Place, and the Loved One can all be found together. Metaphori-
cally speaking, here without doubt is one of those rare occasions. The
BOU and all those who will be using this admirable book have indeed
cause to be grateful for the finding of the right man in the right place
at the right time. All the circumstances have combined and conspired
to produce a work that will certainly stand out as the bird book of
the century and will still remain a classic in the centuries to conic.
it is a fitting memorial to the editor, to the contributors, to
ornithology itself in general, and to the BOU in particular the centenary
of whose birth it is meant to celebrate. Last but not least, it must
be mentioned that the royalties accruing to the Union from the sales
of the book have been ear-marked as the nucleus of an endowment
fund for the furtherance of ornithological research and for special
publications.

S.A.

7. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE MAMMALS OF SABAH.
By John Harrison. pp. 244 (c. 18x12 cm.). Illustrated by Chong
Yus Fatt. Jesselton, 1946. The Sabah Society.

It took me some time to ascertain that Sabah is what used to be
known as British North Borneo. The latter name, however, brings
back to mind the postage stamps depicting the tapir and rhinoceros,
and forming, perhaps, my first introduction to natural history.

The paperback form appeared hardly compatible with the title,
but the author’s name and a glance at the contents were reassuring.
While it is hardly possible to provide notes for the field identification

140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

of 56 species of bats, 11 flying squirrels, and 19 squirrels, the excellent

keys, short descriptions, and drawings will be of great value to all who

are interested. ila
Such a book covering Indian mammals is badly wanted. Curiously

the price is not mentioned’.
H.A.

8. THE WORLD OF BIRDS : A Comprehensive Guide to
General Ornithology. By James Fisher and Roger Tory Peterson.
pp. 288 (c. 31X24 cm.). With bird paintings by Roger Tory Peterson.
London, 1964. Macdonald. Price £5.5.0 net. .

According to the authors’ own estimates the total number of full
species of living birds today is 8580. They add a further 937 species
known from fossils or which have become extinct in the last 350 years.
Of this total of 9517 nearly 1200 species are mentioned and 743
illustrated in this book—668 in colour—with the consummate skill
and mastery of Roger Tory Peterson.

The authors are big names in ornithology today and a book like
this embodying their joint labours and individual skills and erudition
is something of an event. It is one in the line of large, lavishly
illustrated, and somewhat expensive bird books whose proliferation
in recent years is a sure and refreshing sign of the growing popularity.
bird study has achieved—and largely through the agency of such
illustrated books themselves. Not long ago we had Gilliard’s magni-
ficent LIVING BIRDS OF THE WORLD. This was soon foilowed by
Austin’s BIRDS OF THE WORLD and now we have this equally magnificent
THE WORLD OF BIRDS. They may well be called the Bird and World
series, and one may well wonder what other permutations the words

will still admit!
The book covers such a vast range of topics that it is not possible

to give an adequate idea of the contents within the limits of a short

notice. Much of the recent’ scientific investigations, findings, trends,
and hypotheses are described in language which should make them
readily comprehensible to the interested layman. The variety of birds.
their evolution, attributes _and_ specializations, their distribution,
abundance, migrations, social life, food, and behaviour are discussed.
The authors believe that ‘the total bird population of the world,
including sea birds, may be of the order of a hundred billion’ (=a
hundred thousand million).

~ 1From a book news sheet issued by Borneo Literature Bureau ne price ies been
ascertained to be M$ 4,00.—Eps, ,

REVIEWS 141

_ There is a useful chapter on ‘Bird Watching’ with hints for observing,
note-taking, and record-keeping, and helpful suggestions concerning
equipment such as field glasses, blinds (or ‘hides’), still and movie
cameras, lenses, and other gadgets for bird photography and sound
recording. Another chapter describes the techniques of modern bird
migration study—netting, trapping, and ringing; and moon watching,
. and radar. How birds can be attracted by the provision of nest-boxes
and feeding trays, and Bird Protection and Bird Sanctuaries forms the
subject of another section. Many other topics such as chemical sprays
and insecticides and the menace of oil pollution of the sea also find
their place. The chapter entitled “The Regiment of Birds’ (covering
about 100 pages) of attractively designed distribution maps for all the
199 Families—fossil, recently extinct, and living—together with lists
of the genera, number of known species, and probable centre of origin
of each is a novel and very useful feature. The families are headed
by RIP’s beautiful silhouettes of one of its typical represeniatives.
The chapter ‘Birds and Men’ is of particular interest as it deals
- with various aspects of economic ornithology showing the debit and
credit sides of its balance sheet with inan. The book concludes with
a ‘RED LIST’ showing family by family the birds presently in danger
of extinction and needing special protection, and a ‘Black List’ show-
ing all the species known to have become extinct since about 1600 a.D.
The good bibliography, sectioned into Fossil Birds, General and
Introductory, Special aspects of Natural History, and Selected standard
bird books region- and country-wise, will be invaluable for reference.

The book is certainly, as its publishers claim, ‘unique in many
ways’, both the illustrations, and the letterpress make it so. And to
this it must be added that the layout and printing are superb.

S.A.

9. NEVER CRY WOLF. By Farley Mowat. pp. 247 (22x
14 cm.). Boston, 1963. Atlantic Monthly Press, U.S.A. Price $ 4-95.

From his earliest youth, Farley Mowat was drawn to the study
of animals in their habitat. It was natural therefore that one day he
received a summons from the Dominion Wildlife Service to investigate
the Canis lupus problem which had assumed national importance.
Thirty-seven memoranda had been received from members of the
Canadian House of Commons expressing the concern of their con-
stituents about the menace they faced from wolves. It was reported

142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

that wolves were killing all the deer and caribou, and the suggestion
that human hunters were responsible for the killing had been hooted
down as emanating from wolf lovers. A full-scale investigation was
therefore deemed desirable.

When Mowat arrived at Churchill on the western shore of Hudson
Bay en route to his ultimate destination in the desolate wastes of the
subarctic barren lands, he had to follow this soulless operational order:
‘You will, immediately upcn reaching Churchill, proceed by chartered |
air transport in a suitable direction to the requisite distance and
thereupon establish a base at a point where conditions generally are
optimal to the furtherance of your operations.’

He reached his destination by chartered plane, with equipment and
stores to last him for more than a year. It must require extra-
ordinary courage and resourcefulness to face the prospect of life in
an uninhabited tundra without human company for months together.
It must also require unusual dedication to one’s ideals to follow this
part of the operational order: ‘Immediately after establishing a
permanent base you will proceed, by means of canoe and utilizing
waterways, to make an extensive general survey of the surrounding
country to a depth, and in a manner, which will be significant in
statistical terms, in order to determine the range/population ratio of
Canis lupus and in order to establish contact with the study species’.

By a stroke of luck an Eskimo happened to come along with his
huskies where the author landed. He had a cabin of Caribou hide
not far from this place, and the author grasped the opportunity to
house himself and his valuable equipment in the cabin. He then got
to work on his problem.

Mowat was an ideal investigator for the job for he seemed to have
no preconceived notions about the wolf/caribou relationship. On his
first tour around his cabin he found four or five hundred caribou
skeletons. He assumed that these beasts had been killed by wolves.
Later, however, he saw that the density of caribou remains
decreased in geometrical ratio to the distance from human habitation.
This problem was certainly worth investigation, and by the time he
had finished he came te some startling conclusions.

Fortunately, the author discovered a wolf den not far from his
cabin. It consisted of a couple, whom he named George and Angeline,
and an unattached general factotum of the establishment, whom he
called Uncle Albert. The book is a gripping account of the life of
this family and the four pups. While the pups were being nursed
Angeline came to the door of the den, to bid good-bye to George and
Albert every night when they left for the hunt. They returned the

REVIEWS 143

next morning worn out by the chase. They never came back with
anything in their mouths, and the author discovered that the pups were
fed by regurgitation. After the pups had grown up Angeline also
joined in the hunt. When caribous were not available, the woives
lived on mice which were plentiful in the area. The author lived on
an exclusively mice diet for several days to check on its food value.
The relationships between the adults and the young have been described
charmingly and scientifically. Mowat is an experienced and gifted
writer and he presents his observations in a manner which make them
unforgettable.

The opinions of human beings about the viciousness and brutality of
wild animals have been proved wrong again and again. In the case
of the wolf the author was able to prove conclusively that they kill
only for food, and waste very little of what they kill. They con-
centrate on killing the weak and unhealthy caribou, thereby aiding
the maintenance of healthy caribou stock. The numbers of wolves were
nowhere as large as was presumed, because each wolf family requires
a large area in which to hunt and live. The decimation of caribou herds
was not due to the depredation of wolves but to barbarous killings by
trappers who kill several hundred at a time and tto ‘sportsmen’ who
are given the opportunity by Safari Companies to corner the herds
with planes and shoot the trapped animals as they scamper over the
frozen lakes. The hypocrisy of the human race with regard to their
attitude towards wild life is exposed unanswerably in this book, and
the epilogue, reproduced below, makes distressing reading: ‘During
the winter of 1958-1959 the Canadian Wildlife Service, in pursuance
of its continuing policy of wolf control, employed several Predator
Control Officers to patrol the Keewatin Barrens in ski-equipped
aircraft for the purpose of setting out poison bait stations. In early
May of 1959, one of these officers landed at Wolf House Bay. He
remained in the vicinity for some hours and placed a number of cyanide
‘wolf getters’ in appropriate places near the den, which, so he
ascertained, was occupied [This den, incidentally, was the one which
had been occupied by Angeline and her family]. He also spread a
number of strychnine-treated baits in the vicinity. He was unable to
return at a later date to check on this control station, because of the
early onset of the spring thaws. It is not known what results were
obtained.’

Z.F.

i144. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 62 (1)

10. CALL OF THE TIGER. By Lt.-Col. M. M. Ismail. pp. 174
(20°5X 13:5 cm.). London, 1964. Faber and Faber. Price 18s. net.

Crime stories are usually written, read, and enjoyed by those who
are not concerned with crime or its detection, and in recent years a
large number of tiger and other shikar books have been produced on
the same lines.

This book however is refreshingly different. The author is one
of the old brigade, who were prepared to work hard in the forests and
pit their wits against the animals on relatively equal terms.

There are no heroics or tales of massacre. The reader quietly, but
often tensely, accompanies him on his excursions. All the ventures do
not produce adventures, nor are all successful, as is true in real life.
But the stories, with their background of natural history and shikar
knowledge, hold your attention, and are no less interesting than those
in which five shots are placed in the heart of the charging tiger.

Col. Ismail’s book has the correct perspective. He obviously
knows his subject, and every true sportsman and lover of nature will
enjoy it—my only objection is to his ‘maneaters’: in the book at least,
I would prefer ‘man-eaters’ !

In connection with the continued decline in the number of our
larger animals, he has referred to arms-licences in the erstwhile
Bombay State increasing from 70,000 to 1,20,000, in which the number
of crop-protection licences rose from 20,000 to 70,000 leaving those >
for sport unchanged at 50,000. It may be interesting to add that hardly
a thousand (2%) of these ‘sportsmen’ apply for game licences every
year! The holding of Wild Life Weeks does not help. Together
with the resolutions of Wild Life Boards and such bodies, they only
serve to divert attention from the real problem, and apparently to
satisfy those who do not know the actual position out-of-doors but
talk about it and minute pious resolutions.

; H.A.

Miscellaneous Notes

1. HABITS OF THE RHESUS MACAQUE MACACA
MULATTA (ZIMMERMANN) IN THE SUNDERBANS,
24-PARGANAS, WEST BENGAL

The habits of the Rhesus macaque in the Sunderbans have not yet
been recorded. In the course of faunistic surveys conducted during
the years 1955-1960 A.K.M. had the opportunity of studying the habits
of this monkey which appear to differ from its habits in other parts
of West Bengal. |

In the extensive mangrove forests of the Sunderbans, which thrive
in the numerous swamp deltas facing the Bay of Bengal, the Rhesus has.
established itself under conditions normally unfavourable to Primate
life, namely the absence of fresh water, the submergence of the
greater parts of the islands in the spring tides, the soft, muddy, and
slippery soil, cyclonic conditions especially during the summer and
monsoon, etc. Its predators are terrestrial, arboreal, and aquatic,
e.g. the Tiger (Panthera tigris), the Python (Python molurus), the
Estuarine Crocodile (Crocodilus porosus), and sharks, which include
the Wolf Shark (Alopynus vulpinus) and the Man-eating Shark
(Carcharinus gangeticus).

Observations were made in the low mangrove forests [Forest type
1 §/2 (a) of Champion (1936, p. 103)]. mostly in the Basirhat Reserve
Forest in Arbesi, Jhilla, Harinbhanga, Khatuajhuri, and other adjoin-
ing forest blocks along the East Pakistan border. The population of
the Rhesus appeared to decrease from east to west.

The troupes consist of 20 to 30 individuals. Solitary individuals.
are also noticed. They are not very common, and perhaps represent
exiled males. Each troupe occupies a territory, generally a complete
forest block in an island, but in large islands there are more than one
troupe. They are shy and avoid human approach by moving away
into the deeper parts of the forests, and never show any aggressive
attitude. They are almost entirely arboreal, rarely descending to
the ground except during cyclonic weather, when they take shelter
in long grass or under Hental (Phoenix paludosa) palms and sometimes
on the lower branches of large trees. They avoid swimming in the
saline backwater. However, in search of food, some are found to
move on mud-flats and sometimes a troupe may boldly swim across
creeks at ebb tide and move into the nearest reclaimed area to feed on

146 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

standing crops. Their food in the forest consists of, the pods, leaves,
and fruit of Garjan (Rhizophora conjugata), Goran (Ceriops spp.),
Golpata (Nipa_ fruticans), Baen (Avicennia alba), Bhaila (Afzelia
bijuga), Gengwa (Excaecaria agallocha), etc. The fruit and leaves
of Keora (Sonneratia apetala), however, constitute the principal foddér
for the monkeys, and are shared with Spotted Deer (Axis axis), which
feed on the leaves and fruits dropped by the monkeys. Further, their
vigilance and alarm calls save the deer from predators.
the monkeys eating crabs, which are commonly seen in the puddles
of water during the ebb tide. We have not seen them catching fish,
although local fishermen report that they catch fish. Mushrooms are
also included in their menu. Water is obtained by licking dew deposited
on leaves, and by eating succulent leathery leaves and long juicy
grasses growing on the river flats.

The taxonomic status of the Sunderban Rhesus is not definite. |

Anderson (1872) referred to a specimen from the Sunderbans as a
supposed new monkey, and Khajuria (1954, p. 113) while listing them
under the nominate race pointed out that they differ in texture and
coloration. The authors observed that in life the Rhesus in the
Sunderbans is duller as compared with those from other parts of West
Bengal. The orange-red fur on its. loins and rump is_ rather
inconspicuous.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

We have found ~

INDIAN MUSEUM,
CaLcuTTa 13,
September 15, 1964.

AJIT KUMAR MUKHERJEE
SUMIT GUPTA

REFERENCES

ANDERSON, J. (1872): On a supposed
new Monkey from the Sunderbans to
the East of Calcutta. Proc. zool. Soc.
London : 529-33.

CHAMPION, H. G. (1936): A prelimi-
nary survey of the forest types of India

and Burma. Indian For. Rec. (N.S.),
Sylviculture 1: 1-286.

KuHaAgsurIA, H. (1954): Catalogue of
mammals in the Indian Museum. IL. Pri-
mates: Cercopithecidae. Rec. Indian
Mus. 52: 101-127.

2. WILD DOGS (CUON ALPINUS) AND VILLAGE DOGS

We reached our land by Sigur River in the lower plateau of the
Nilgiris late in the evening on 31-10-1964. There was a herd of
cheetal about 100 yards away. Seeing us they stopped grazing and

looked at the car curiously in typical cheetal fashion.

AS we were

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 147

watching them from the car, three sambar hinds made their
appearance. They were trotting looking behind every now and then.
Soon a fawn came into view and, on its trail, a pack of dogs—two
wild dogs in front, then two pi-dogs, and behind them following at
a leisurely pace half a dozen wild dogs. The leading dogs were closing
in when I decided to intervene.

The cheetal had fled by this time, but the mother sambar stopped
and the fawn took shelter by its mother’s side. The other two hinds
halted a few paces away and looked on. When the two wild dogs
rushed to seize the fawn its mother, who could have used her fore feet
with effect, did nothing of the kind but walked up to meet the attack
with out-stretched neck, as if to say ‘Take me, but please leave the
kid alone’. ‘ ’

By this time I was within effective shot gun range, and one wild
dog seeing me turned and ran to join its companions which were
standing some distance away watching me. The other was quite
oblivious of my presence. The pi-dogs dashed about barking and
trying to help in the hunt. Holding my shot till I got a chance, I
fired at the wild dog. It fell, got up, and ran towards the jungle.

At the report all the wild creatures except the fawn dispersed, but
the pi-dogs rushed in to the attack. ie ewe the fawn down
and worried it, but a few well-aimed stones made them let go. I
went up to the fawn which was wet and shivering but otherwise
unhurt. My wife and daughter joined me and we stood it on its feet
and massaged it. It became quite frisky after a while and we let
it go to join its family, while I stood by to keep the dogs from having
another try. |

The pi-dogs also went away after some time. But I doubt if they
re-joined the wild dog pack as it had become quite dark by then. As
it rained heavily throughout the night I could not recover the wounded
dog.

The wild dogs did not seem to object to the two pi-dogs joining in
the hunt. But would they have accepted the pi-dogs at the ‘kill’?

Whether the pi-dogs, which we discovered later to belong to
neighbouring patti (cattle kraal), joined in the middle of the hunt or
were with the wild dog pack right from the start I am unable to
say. They certainly did not join near the end of the hunt, for when we
passed the patti on our way to our land the dogs were not there.

On 13-12-1964, in the same locality, J came across another instance
of wild dogs and village dogs hunting together. It was about 3 in

148. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

the afternoon when we heard a scream from the river. It sounded
like a dog in distress. The scream was repeated and I ran towards
it. Half way, I met some men, one of them a Game Watcher of the
Nilgiri Wild Life Association, and they told me ihat a wild dog and
a pi-dog were attacking a sambar fawn and it was the deer that was
making the noise.

When I got to the spot, the young deer was in the middle of a
pool and the pi-dog standing guard on a rock projecting into the pool.
The wild dog had decamped. On seeing us, the fawn attempted to
get out, but the dog jumped in and attacked. When it tried to seize
the fawn a second time, I shot it dead. The fawn had a raw patch
on the inside of its right hind thigh but was otherwise all right and
limped away. It was a little bigger than the first fawn we rescued
and was probably the same animal!

The Game Watcher told me that he has seen wild dogs and village
dogs hunting together, but once the kill is made the wild dogs take
complete charge and only after they have had their fill are the
pi-dogs permitted anywhere near the kill.

On 1-1-1964 a friend and I saw and photographed some wild dogs
on the banks of the Moyar hydro-electric channel about 5 miles
away from the scene of agtion described above. One of the dogs had
a distinct white patch of hair on its throat, indicating mixed blood.
It would be interesting to observe whether the wild dogs mate with
their domesticated brethren.

THe Nitcirt Witp Lire ASSOCIATION,
OOTACAMUND, S. INDIA, Bar. oC. DAVIDAR

December 23, 1964.

[Cases of association between wild dogs :and pariah dogs have
been reported previously (e.g. 1951, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50:
163). It would be interesting to have particulars of known cases of
interbreeding.—EDs.]

3. BREEDING OF THE INDIAN WILD ASS EQUUS
HEMIONUS KHUR LESSON IN CAPTIVITY

_ I write to report the birth of an Indian Wild Ass, Equus hemionus
khur Lesson, 1827, on 13 August 1964, in the Maharaja Fatesingh
Zoo at Baroda. As you are aware, this species is on the list of rare

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 149

animals, and I believe has never been bred in captivity. I am
informing you of this as I am sure the Society will be interested.

LAXMI VIILAS PALACE, F. GAEKWAD,
BARODA, Maharaja of Baroda
October 5, 1964.

[Harper in EXTINCT AND VANISHING MAMMALS OF THE OLD WORLD
states that, between 1842 and 1849, 9 Wild Ass foals were born in
the Paris Zoo. There is no record of the species breeding in captivity
in India.—EDs.]

4. THE HISPID HARE [CAPROLAGUS HISPIDUS (PEARSON)]

In continuation of the Editorial Note (Journal 57: 400-402) on the
rarity of the Hispid Hare, Shebbeare (Journal 58 : 266-267) reported
that it was not uncommon in parts of the Goalpara Forest Division in
1907-1911. During March-April, 1955 and 1957, the writer collected
for about seven weeks around: Raimona and Jamduar in the north-
eastern parts of Goalpara District, Assam, bordering West Bengal and
Bhutan. The species is certainly rare in this area at present because,
despite the best efforts of four trained collectors to make a thorough
survey of the mammalian fauna of the area, I could see only two
specimens, one in the field (not collected) and a young one with a
local person who had obtained it around Raimona. The young
one was purchased by the leader of the jGerman-Indian
Expedition with whom the writer was then working and is now in
the collection of the Hamburg Museum. The one seen in the field
was seen at dusk near a shallow pool of water just on the left bank
of Sankosh River about 3 km. south of Jamduar Forest Rest House.
On noticing the presence of the writer at a distance of hardly 15 metres
it ran away, then stopped and tried to hide itself behind stones, but
finding itself too big to do so it ran up a high bank and disappeared
in the bush. On inspection of the spot where it had disappeared a
fresh burrow large enough to accommodate the animal was noticed. It
was excavated on the top of the alluvial bank, partly below a bush
about ten metres from the pool of water. The bank was well covered
with tall grass and some bushes and bordered at some distance by
a typical sal forest. The area was far removed from human habitation
and showed numerous footprints of large and small carnivores, deer,

150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

and several other wild animals. The spot was again visited at the
same hour next day but the animal was not seen.

CENTRAL REGIONAL STATION,

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, H. KHAJURIA
JABALPUR,

July 20, 1964.

5. YOUNG OF THE INDIAN GERBILLE, TATERA INDICA
INDICA HARDWICKE

(With a photograph)

A brood of six young (4 ¢@ and 2 oc‘) of the Indian Gerbille
Tatera indica indica Hardwicke, each weighing 25 gm., was taken on
20-11-63 by the writer from a burrow at village Manot on Mandla-
Dindori Road, Madhya Pradesh. The mother escaped. They were
still blind but were well covered with hair. The following unrecorded —
differences from the adults, two of which were also collected from the
same locality, have been noted. , |

Photo: H. Khajuria Sn :|

Hair growth is imperfect around the urinogenital organs, the inner
side of the thigh, the chest, the throat, the inner side of the front legs,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 151

and the lips. The upper portion of the snout in front of the black
patch is almost hairless). There is a large hairless patch
behind the ears which in the adult is covered over by white
hairs. The black spots on the snout, around the eyes, behind the
ears, and behind the ankles are comparatively larger and darker.
There is a prominent white patch above the eye extending almost to
the ear and a smaller one below it. The ears, especially their posterior
aspect, are much more hairy. The whiskers are all white and com-
paratively longer. The pencil of long black hairs at the tip of the
tail, a characteristic of the adult, is absent. The lateral light-coloured
streaks on the tail are shorter. The light rufous and grey patches
on the anterior side of the front leg are more pronounced. The soles
of the feet are much lighter but the pads are darker. The tail is less
hairy. There is very little individuai variation except that the lateral
lighter streaks on the tail may be shorter or longer, and the light
rufous patch on the upper parts of the front leg may be absent.

The clitoris is nearly as large as the penis. Since the testes are not
visible and the urinogenital opening is almost invisible to the naked
eye, sex determination is difficult.

‘As shown by the measurements given below the proportions of
their body parts are different from those of the adults collected from
the same locality in the same season:

No. &

description Head & Body | Ear Hind Foot Tail
Measurements in mm. with mean values in parentheses
e

6 young 67-75 9.5-11 23.5 25.00 62-66
(69.8) (10) (24.33) (64.8)

1 Adult 196 24 40 210°8

Measurements as percentages of hind foot
6 young 286°9 41.1 — 266.3

1 Adult 490 60 — 527

CENTRAL REGIONAL STATION,

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, H. KHAJURIA
JABALPUR,

April 24, 1964.

152. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

- 6 SOME NOTES ON THE PAINTED PARTRIDGE
[FRANCOLINUS PICTUS (JARDINE & SELBY)] AROUND
BOMBAY : A CORRECTION

In the last issue of the Journal (61 : 447) I said that the Painted
Partridge [Francolinus pictus (Jardine & Selby)] calls only during the
courting and breeding seasons, and gave the first and last dates as
8th April and Sth November. While waiting for duck at dusk at
Ghoti, Nasik District, Maharashtra, on 25th December 1964, I thought
I heard a Painted Partridge ca!! but was not quite sure. _ |

On the following day we were driving back from Nasik in the
late afternoon to get into position for the evening flight (at Lake
Beale) when we ran out of petrol some 10 miles ftom Ghoti. Half
an hour after sunset, while still waiting for petrol and thinking of
all the duck that had escaped, we heard a Painted Partridge call some
distance from the road and a reply from far away. Jamshed Panday
and I walked towards the calling bird and kicked about tile bushes,
but no bird was seen. As we walked back to the car almost in the
dark, a bird rose from the grass at our feet and was dropped and
collected. It was a male in non-breeding condition. On the following
day we worked the area and got 3 more birds all with undeveloped
gonads.

I also find the following in my notes made at Vidishi, Sironj (old
Tonk State), Madhya Pradesh, on 18 December 1958: ‘In the even-
ing the Grey Partridge were calling all around. A few Painted
Partridge joined in later and continued after sunset, when the Grey had
stopped.’ |

It would therefore appear that the Painted Partridge dis call
outside the breeding season-—though perhaps only late in the
evening, for it is unlikely that we could have missed the €all during
the daytime over all these years in the Konkan.

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI
BOMBAY 3,
February 2, 1965.

7. FOOD OF THE WHITEBREASTED KINGFISHER
[HALCYON SMYRNENSIS (LINNAEUS)]

Rawal Lake, situated a few miles north of Rawalpindi, has been
newly formed by the construction of a small dam, to provide for the
increased water requirements of that city as well as the new capital
of Islamabad. It is about 1100 feet above sea-level, and as yet is

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 153

surrounded only by tall grass with no trees or even large bushes in
the vicinity.

On September 6th the two of us, while motoring past, stopped to
watch the birds around an arm of the lake, which extends to the
roadside. Among other birds we observed, perched on overhanging
brambles on the steep earth bank above the water, groups of 2 or 3
Pied Kingfishers (Ceryle rudis), a solitary Common Kingfisher
(Alcedo_ atthis) and- two Whitebreasted Kingfishers (Halcyon
smyrnensis) all within a distance of fifty yards from each other—a
concentration of kingfishers such as I have never seen before.

We had just noticed a flock of about eight Whitethroated Munias
(Lonchura malabarica) feeding on grass seed growing on top of this
earth bank, when suddenly one of the Whitebreasted Kingfishers darted
from its perch and seized’ a munia in its powerful bill. It flew off
towards the main body of the lake with the munia protesting loudly
and struggling violently. The kingfisher kept on flying till, suddenly,
a shower of feathers erupted from its beak and the munia, apparently
minus its tail, made good its escape. By this time, the kingfisher
was at a considerable distance, but through the binoculars it appeared
still to have a bill-full of feathers, almost as bulky as munia itself.

KHANEWAL, T. J. ROBERTS
WEST PAKISTAN, | -C. PRIDDY
December, 1964.

[A case of a Whitebreasted Kingfisher catching and eating a smaller
bird (probably a While-eye) was reported by S. N. Sen (1944, J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 44 : 475.—EDSs.]

8. NOTES ON INDIAN BIRDS 3—THE ALPINE SWIFT,
APUS MELBA (LINNAEUS), WITH A DESCRIPTION OF ONE
NEW RACE

(With a text-figure)

The paucity of specimens available has prevented an appraisal of
the races of the Alpine Swift (A pus melba) in India. Stuart Baker in the
FAUNA (1927) accepted the nominate race, described by Linnaeus in 1758
from Gibraltar, and mentioned the range thus: ‘The mountains of
Northern Africa and of Southern Europe as far north as the Alps;
South-West Asia to practically the whole of India and Ceylon. It is
found as far east as Assam and is common during the winter in Cachar
and Sylhet. He drew attention to the fact that birds from south

154. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

India were smaller and darker with the wing 190-195 mm., never
exceeding 200 mm.

In 1928, on these differences, Hartert separated the Ceylon birds as
bakeri and Stuart Baker referred to this in the FAUNA 8, p. 680, indica-
ting the differences as identical with those mentioned by him earlier and
gave the range as ‘ mountains and hills of Ceylon and Southern India’.

In 1954, Koelz described nubifuga from Rathi, Kumaon, the type
being a 2 with a 205 mm. wing, and included birds from Mysore with
wings 202°5 to 206 as of this race. |

Ripley in the syNopsis has accepted three races from India and
Ceylon:

(a) melba (Linn.): Wintering in West Pakistan and Rerihrwesteny
India ;

(b) nubifuga Koelz: All India south to Kerala, east to Assam and
East Pakistan ; breeding in the Himalayas and in Mysore;

In November 1944, I collected one out of a large flock of swifts that
swooped down to drink at the Patalganga River, Kolaba District, on
the mainland opposite Bombay, and its large 226 mm. wing aroused my
interest and led me to examine these birds more carefully, I have
subsequently been able to obtain some more specimens from the neigh-
bouring areas and, as these together with the other material available
do not tally with Ripley’s account in the syNopsis, I attempt a
reassessment.

The range of measurements in the two sexes is almost identical and,
in view of the relatively small number of specimens available for exami-
nation, I am referring to both sexes together. There appears to be no
difference in the plumages in the different seasons. The material
available falls into the following subspecies :

1. bakeri Hartert Only 2 specimens are available from Ceylon. These
are darker than 9 skins from south India [Jog (Gersoppa) and other
places in North Kanara (7), Palnis (1), and Coimbatore (1)], but can be
matched in colour with the two from Yewat, Poona (Maharashtra),
referred to in item 2 below. In the two Ceylon specimens the brown
edges to the white of the chin appear wider at the level of the gape,
making the white narrower.

Dr. Charles Vaurie to whom I sent a draft of this note informs me
that, allowing for the north to south cline in size, the birds from Ceylon
are darker as well as smaller. He measured the wings of 5 males from
Ceylon 194-207 (199-5). These measurements agree with those of south
Indian birds (see Table), which are different from nubifuga (type locality
Kumaon, U.P.) and the birds should either be included with bakeri or
described as a separate race, In the absence of sufficient material, I am

155

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

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156 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

for the moment following Stuart Baker and leaving them as bakeri. The
Ceylon birds are said to be subject to considerable erratic local move-
ments, and the Gersoppa birds were not seen in June and August by
McCann and myself, though McCann noted them inthe Palnis in June
and July. A pair shot during Christmas week were in breeding condition
(Abdulali 1936, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 38: 829).

Meinertzhagen (Birds of East and Tropical Africa. Ibis 1922 : 34-35)
saw large breeding colonies on the eastern escarpment of the Nilgiri
Hills, but failed to obtain specimens. Daily movements of large numbers
far from suitable breeding places have been recorded.

2. I have six specimens from India from the area which may be termed
the Bombay Deccan [Yewat, near Poona (2), Tungar Hill, Thana,
Bombay (1), Ghoti, Nasik (2), and Chikalda, Berar (1)], which are
similar to birds from further south, but in which the breast band is
noticeably broader.

The two birds from Yewat, a male and female hot out of several
parties hawking over the plains in twos and threes, are as dark as those
from Ceylon, but of course with broader breast bands.

The wider breast band separates them from birds both from the
south and the north; in the latter the breast band is narrower than the
figures suggest. In series they are darker than nubifuga and also
appreciably smaller (see Table).
~ Lt. H. E. Barnes (1886, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 3:47) refers to
‘Mr. Davidson of Malligaum (? Malegaon, c. 55 miles NE. of Nasik—
H.A.)’ showing him both nests and nestlings of the Alpine Swift obtained
by him from fissures in rocks in the mountains in ‘ that district’. He
adds that the nests showed signs of having been attached to the rock on
two sides and were of very solid structure in comparison with those of
the Common Indian Swift. Later, in April 1887 Davidson took a half-
feathered chick at Saptashring, near Nasik, (Whistler, J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 28 : 30) ; the species is therefore resident in this area.

In view of these differences, I would restrict nubifuga to its Himala-
yan limits and hereby name the birds from the hills and ghats near
Bombay

Apus melba dorabtatai subsp. nov.
The name is a small token of my appreciation of the generous aid
so often given by the Sir Dorabji Tata Trust, Bombay, to the Bombay
Natural History Society and to many individuals engaged in scientific
research. ;

Holotype : gin the Bombay Natural History Society’s collection
bearing Register No. 20027, collected by me at Ghoti, Nasik District,
Maharashtra State, on 13 February 1955,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 157

Paratypes: 13% No. 19725, 4 92 Nos. 11560, 19305, 19306, 19726
in the Society’s collection.

3. nubifuga Koelz 1954, Contrib. Inst. Regional Exploration No. 1: 25.
The original description reads :

‘Type 2 Rathi, Kumaon, June 9, 1948, Thakur Rup Chand
collector, W. 205.

‘Compared with the type of A. m. bakeri (Ceylon; A.M.N.H.),
paler above, less black in body plumage and with a broader breast band.
The race bakeri is described as nearly as dark as A. m. africana; this is
confirmed by a study of specimens in American Museum of Natural
History.

‘Compared with a long series of A. m. tuneti from Tunis
(A.M.N.H.) and Afghanistan, darker, with broader breast band and
smaller white throat patch.

‘ Hardly distinguishable in colour from the nominate race melba
(Gibraltar ; A.M.N.H.) but averages a bit darker, the breast band wider
and throat patch smaller. The wing is smaller.’

The wing of the type specimen appeared to me too small for a
northern bird and Mr. R. W. Storer of the Museum of Zoology,
University of Michigan, kindly examined the type. He measured the
right wing as 207 mm., and said that he ‘ could not be certain that there
was any remnant of a sheath at the bases of the primaries’. The left
wing measured about the same, but ‘ the tips of the outer two primaries
are damaged. The outer primary is not larger than the next and,
judging from our only other skin of the species (an example of tuneti
from Afghanistan), the outer primaries lack 3 to 5 mm. of their full
growth’. He added that the label bore the remark ‘ Belly patch’, by
Koelz, presumably meaning incubation patch, and another in pencil in
van Tyne’s handwriting: ‘ Very much like bakeri in colour and size’.
It appears that the wing measurements of nubifuga in the original
description are not very representative.

The measurements of 7 skins. from the northern hills [Simla (4),
Chanoli, Garhwal (1), Ghaggar, Ambala (1), and Chitral (1)] are indi-
cated in the Table. The $1 from Chanoli, Garhwal, dated 12 May 1899
had enlarged testes, while the Simla specimens include 3 immature birds
obtained in August and September, which together with the incubation
patch on the type specimen indicates a breeding season from about May
to August. There is however considerable local movement. Jones, for
instance (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26: 614), refers to seeing large
scattered flocks in spring and autumn and says that it departs from
Simla at the end of April and returns in October. Whistler (J. Bombay
nat. Hist, Soc, 32: 727) noted them on various dates from 11 April to
17 May, and said they were more numerous on autumn migration, 21
August to 24 September, often in very large numbers.

158 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

The British Museum have lent me for examination a skin obtained
by Davidson at Simla on 23 August 1877, which is paler than the other
specimens and has an attenuated tip to the outer tail feathers as
in tuneti (q. v.) and may well be of that race. Even if nubifuga is restricted
to the northern hills, the paucity of specimens and other information
over this wide range is very obvious and requires a much more careful
examination.

4. tuneti Tschusi Meinertzhagen (loc. cit.) wrote: ‘1 have recently
collected a series of 10 from Palestine and Crete. They are all paler and
greyer in colour than those breeding elsewhere in Europe and the
Himalayas....... agree with breeding birds from North Africa,
tuneti from Tunis.’ He questions the identity of melba Linn., named
‘after a figure by Edwards of a bird from Gibraltar’, and says: ‘ The
colour is particularly dark, even darker than most birds from Southern
Europe, and melba would apply to South European birds. If tuneti is
separable, it would apply to birds breeding in Northern Africa, Somali-
land, Arabia, Crete, Palestine, east to Persia, but not to Baluchistan
and the Himalayas. ...’. Unfortunately he does not indicate what
race inhabits the last area !

This race has not been recorded from India, but the bird shot out of
a large flock was obviously a migrant and its size compares well with 6
specimens: from northern Shiraz (1), Murghat Herat, Afghanistan (1),
Palestine (3), NW. Himalayas (1), and the Simla specimen referred to
above, which all appear to be tuneti (see Table). The specimen was sent
to Dr. Mauersberger at the Zoological Museum at Berlin, and he stated
that it matched their series of tuneti, and was distinctly paler and greyer
than most melba. There is some variation in the colour of the upper
parts, but the Bombay bird is paler than any specimen of nubifuga, dorab-
tatai or bakeri. In all the eight specimens, the outermost tail feathers
appear to taper to a sharper point than in the others, and this character is
illustrated in the accompanying sketch. It has been suggested that this
is a character which may be dependent upon the age of the individual,
but it is not visible in any of the other skins examined.

5. Four birds [Hingolgadh, Saurashtra (3), and Mt. Abu (1)] all taken
in September can be picked out from all Indian specimens by the upper
parts being grey rather than brown. Salim Ali has identified them as

melba and these are probably the specimens of the nominate race from -

Saurashtra and Mt. Abu in the Bombay Natural History Society collec-
tion mentioned in the SYNOPSIS.

One skin was sent to Dr. Mauersberger who found it ‘paler than
melba and about matching tuneti’. In series I find them quite different
from those which I have identified as tuneti. >

;

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 159

Salim Ali obtained a male at Gujri in Dhar State on 4 September
1939 with a 214 mm. wing which Whistler (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
41: 474) identified as melba, though he noted that the wing was a little

a b

Outer tail feathers of :
(a) Apus melba tuneti; (b) A.m. bakeri

small for the typical race. He said it agreed with his series from north-
west India, being too pale for bakeri. Perhaps this was similar to the
birds described here.

The fact that the four skins available from a restricted area are
noticeably different from the four races referred to above prompts me
to believe that they represent an undescribed race, Butler (Stray
Feathers 3:453) said the Alpine Swift ‘ arrives at Mount Aboo in large
numbers about the beginning of September and remains during part of
-the cold weather’. In the absence of any evidence regarding their
breeding in the area and their subsequent movements, I am not separat-
ing them at this stage. I trust that further evidence will soon be available
and permit a clarification. |

I realize that this note is not exhaustive and I hope that those who
have the opportunity will obtain more specimens, preferably of breeding
birds, to try and clarify matters. With their wonderful powers of flight
the swifts probably cover vast distances, but a fairly specialized type. of
nesting site is necessary. Many such sites may hold distinct popula-
tions and it is not improbable that it may be possible to associate the
differences, now visible and accepted as individual variations in the same
race, with different breeding populations.

_ Tam grateful to the authorities of the Zoological Survey of India, the
British Museum, the Colombo Museum, and the Tel-Aviv University for

100 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

the loan of skins for examination, to Dr. Charles Vaurie of the
American Museum of Natural History for his comments on a prelimi-
nary note, to Dr. R. W. Storer of the Museum of Zoology, University
of Michigan, for notes on the type specimen of A. m. nubifuga, to
Dr. Salim Ali for access to several references, and particularly to
Dr. G. Mauersberger of the Zoological Museum of the University of
Berlin for his comments on the specimens sent to him.

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI
BOMBAY 3,
October 17, 1964.

9. SWALLOWS HIRUNDO RUSTICA LINNAEUS
ROOSTING ON WIRES

(With a plate)

I have seen swallows roosting in enormous numbers in reed beds
(Phragmites karka Trin.) in Kerala and near Calcutta, and in sugarcane
fields in Rajasthan and Kerala. Sdlim Ali (1962)' has reported them
as roosting in mangroves at- Bombay. I recently noted swallows
Hirundo rustica roosting on electric power lines near Dharavi, Bombay.
Swallows collecting in large numbers on electric as well as telephone
wires during the day is a common sight but, so far as I am aware,
they have’ not been reported as roosting at night on such exposed
perches. The roost was first noticed on 12 December 1963, and was —
in use as such till 20 January 1964, when I left Bombay for a couple
of months. It was found abandoned on my return to the site on
5 April 1964. The roost was already occupied on 30 August 1964,
when I visited the place again, and continues to be still in use. The
roosting behaviour of these birds is under observation and will be —
reported later.

The photographs accompanying the note were taken on 2 November
1964 at 9.45 p.m.

Bomar NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,
91, WALKESHWAR RoOaD, P. V. GEORGE,
BOMBAY 6-WB.. Research Scholar

February 2, 1965.

1 Salim Ali ; (1962): The BNHS/\ WHO Bird Migration Study SEE
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59 (3) : 921-929.

JOURN. BomBay Nat. HIstT. Soc.

enrerens eer od et ae on ot es on pe ao wP et ca 2 Po+~<>

Swallows (Hirundo rustica) roosting on electric power lines at Dharavi, Bombay
Photos: P. V. George

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 161

10. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF FINSCH’S STARLING
(STURNUS VULGARIS POLTARATSKYI FINSCH)
NEAR BOMBAY

On 29 November 1964, while shooting snipe at Rewas (across
Bombay Harbour), Alibag Taluka, Kolaba District, Maharashtra, I
saw a party of about a dozen starlings over marshy land. They settled
on telegraph wires in front of my companion Krishna Talcherkar who,
at my request, fired into them dropping four, a male and three females.

Stuart Baker in the FAUNA (3 : 31 et seq.) accepted seven races from
Indian limits, but only five of them are included in Ripley’s SyNopsis
(1961). Judged by their wing measurements [128-135 mm. (oo*‘)],
purplish heads and throats, and greenish upper- and underparts, the
present birds are Sturnus vulgaris poltaratskyi Finsch (Type locality:
Marka-Kul, Eastern Kazakhstan). This race is accepted as a common
winter visitor to West Pakistan and northern India and, though
specimens have been obtained at Madras (Whistler, J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 36 : 587), it is said to be an uncommon straggler in Gujarat
(Salim Ali, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52 : 796). There appears to be
no earlier record of this species from the Bombay area.

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET,
BOMBAY 3, - HUMAYUN ABDULALI

December 8, 1964.

11. PLANTS EATEN BY UROMASTIX MICROLEPIS
BLANFORD AND OTHER NOTES ON THIS
LIZARD IN EASTERN ARABIA

It is a well-known fact that the spiny-tailed lizard (Uromastix) is
herbivorous. The writer has seen many of these lizards during desert
trips in eastern Arabia without, however, ever observing one in the act
of feeding. Nor was much learned about their diet through obser-
vations of captive specimens, for of several lizards kept for weeks at a
time all refused to eat anything in captivity.

Mr. Harry Alter and the writer made a trip inland from Dhahran
on 7-8 May 1964; one of the purposes of the journey was to test the
Palatability of Uromastix as human food. Six specimens of Uromastix
microlepis Blanford were taken between Nita (27° 13/N., 48° 25’E.) and
Abwab (26° 07’N., 48° 56’E.) on May 7-8 in the Wadi al Miyah area, a
low-lying region particularly favoured by this lizard. All of the spiny-
tailed lizards reported from eastern Arabia have been of this species.

162 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (A)

The last three taken by the writer on May 8 were collected 55 km.
west of Al Lidam (‘ Jebel Dam ’), where Gasperetti took a specimen
(CAS 84430) in 1946 that was subsequently presented to the California
Academy of Sciences (Haas 1957). The writer identified the following
plant species from fragments in the stomach contents of the six
specimens :
1. Astragalus gyzensis Del. (Leguminosae) : leaves and pods
2. Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. (Cucurbitaceae) : a few seeds
3. Gramineae: one grass spikelet, not identified (Aristida
plumosa L. is common in the area)
4. Horwoodia dicksoneae Turrill (Cruciferae): flowers and
(probably) leaves
5. Launaea capitata (Spreng.) Dandy (Compositae) : leaves and
flower buds
6. Moltkiopsis ciliata (Forsk.) Johnst. (syn. Lithospermum callo-
sum Vahl (Boraginaceae) : leaves and flowers
7. Neurada procumbens L. (Rosaceae) : leaves and fruits
8. Plantago boissieri Hausskn. et Bornm. (syn. P. albicans L. :
Plantaginaceae) : leaves and flowers.

Several of the lizards killed were females that contained large yellow
masses of ovarian eggs. The testes in the males appeared to be enlarged
and active. |

It was noted that specimens seen early in the morning shortly after
sunrise were quite dark in colour—a dark slate-grey. The lizards were
extremely wary at this time and seldom ventured further than a few
yards from their burrows, diving into their holes at the slightest distur-
bance. As the morning wore on and the temperature increased, all
the lizards seen became lighter in colour. By midday they were nearly
white to bright yellow. Similar colour changes have been reported
for Uromastix loricatus (Blanford) in Iran (Anderson 1963), and
Schmidt-Nielsen (1964) has discussed the significance of colour changes
in controlling the body temperature of desert reptiles.

Most of the writer’s specimens were taken at midday, when the
lizards’ behaviour had changed almost as remarkably as their colour.
At this time they ventured far from their burrows, sometimes to a dis-
tance of several hundred yards and were, contrary to expectation, easily
approached on foot. They lay motionless and moved in many cases
only after being touched ; then they were off for the burrow at a speed
that could be matched by a running man only with great effort. All o
the specimens killed had full or nearly full stomachs. The lizard
apparently feed before noon and then lie in the sun at some distance
from their holes, depending on their motionless state and light colour
for protection. The general boost in metabolism provided by the
noonday heat may be an aid to the digestive process.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 163

Uromastix (Arabic dabb, pl. dubban) is a fairly common element in
the diet of many Bedouin Arabs, and specimens are occasionally sold
alive in the markets for food. The whole carcass is usually roasted in
the skin by burying in hot coals, although most of the meat is found in
the tail and hind legs. Any eggs found are put back into the abdominal
cavity to roast or are enclosed in the cleaned stomach for steaming.
The writer and a companion roasted the tails and hind legs of two
specimens and found the flesh ‘tasty, if somewhat fibrous, and stringy.
There is no ‘ gamey’ flavour ; it tastes more like somewhat tough lamb
than the chicken or fish to which it has been compared. Some portions
of the tails were overdone, and the burned horny scales imparted an
unpleasant flavour to the underlying meat. Boiling or roasting after
skinning thus might be preferred. Uromastix is found over wide areas
in the Saharo-Sindian desert region and is fairly easy to capture. It
should be considered a primary survival food source for this area.

ARABIAN AFFAIRS DIVISION,

ARABIAN AMERICAN OIL COMPANY, J. MANDAVILLE
DHAHRAN, SAUDI ARABIA,

January 10, 1965.

REFERENCES

ANDERSON, S.C. (1963): Amphibians and Reptiles pone Arabia. ibid., 4th
and Reptiles from Iran. Proc. California _ series, 29(3):
_ Acad. of Sci., 4th series, 31 (16) : 417-498. Seas gs Ie (1964): Desert
Haas, G. (1957): Some Amphibians Animals. Oxford.

12. OCCURRENCE OF THE SUNFISH RANZANIA
TRUNCATA (RETZIUS) NEAR VERAVAL, ALONG
GUJARAT COAST*

On 12 May 1963, an uncommon fish was caught off Jaleshwar
Village, about 2 miles north of Veraval, by fishermen operating a gill-
net in about 30 metres depth of water. Not having seen this type
of fish before, they brought it to this office for identification and it
was identified as the sunfish Ranzania truncata.

Deraniyagala (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 44 : 429) and Chacko &
Mathew (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53 : 724) have recorded Ranzania
truncata from Ceylon waters and Beypore (Malabar coast) respectively.

1 Published with the permission of the Superintending Engineer, Deep Sea Fishing
Station, Bombay.

i164. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (i)

Apart from these two records. there appeared to be no records about
its occurrence north of Beypore on the west coast of India’. Its
occurrence on the Gujarat coast is therefore placed on record. Also
some important measurements (in cm.) are given:

Measurements in cm, é

Total length—60 2

Length to base of caudal—57°‘2

Depth of body—38°7.

Depth of body near pectoral—30°5

Depth of body near dorsal and anal—26:0
Length of head—23°0

Snout—8 4

Diameter of eye—3*7

Distance between eye and opercle—8°9
Length of pectoral—12°3, width of base—3°1
Length of dorsal—19°1, width of base—8°0
Anal damaged—width of base—6:4

Colour: Greyish black above and below in line with dorsal and
anal, with some indistinct white bands. Eight cross bands extending
from snout to base of pectoral. First two bands without blotches,
subsequent bands blotched irregularly, last two indistinct. Sides of

body whitish grey. Fins in general black, pectoral transparent and

yellowish at the base. Round black spots with white circles in region
above anus.

The occurrence of the sunfish in coastal waters is rare. Fishermen
in South Africa believe that a sudden storm follows its appearance in
coastal waters and hence they suspend fishing operations and return
‘to base. It is interesting-to record that, soon after the present
capture, the fishermen had to suspend fishing operations owing to
inclement weather. A possible reason for its occurrence in coastal
waters would appear to be spawning migration, as the specimen
examined, a male, was oozing milt even with a little pressure.

DEEP SEA FISHING STATION,
VERAVAL, M. J. PRADHAN
August 21, 1964.

1 It has been recorded from Bombay Harbour (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61:
453-456.—EDs.).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 165 -

13. REMARKABLE GROWTH OF FISH IN SANDAIMEDU
. DEMONSTRATION TANK (NORTH ARCOT DISTRICT,
MADRAS STATE), WITH A NOTE ON ITS ECOLOGY

The major Indian carps, Catla catla, Labeo rohita, and Cirrhina
mrigala, are well known for their rapid growth. Chacko & Ganapati
(1950) recorded a weight-increase in catla of 54 Ib. (2°5 kg.) in 5
months in a pond at Kancheepuram. This fish is reported to have
erown 7-9 Ib. (3:2-4-0 kg.) in a year in polluted water (Chacko 1948,
Chacko & Kurian 1948). Mriga!l grew 3-4 Ib. (1-4-1:8 kg.) in a year
in certain ponds in Madras (Chacko & Ganapati 1951). In this
context it is interesting to record the remarkable growth of rohu in
-Sandaimedu Tank in Chengam Town in North Arcot District, an
isolated, square-shaped, perenial tank, with a mean depth of 1:5 m.,
a maximum depth of 4 m., and an area of 0-4 acre (0°16 hectare).
The tank is used for washing clothes and bathing cattle, and slight
pollution occurs by domestic drainage from half a dozen huts.

Early in 1960 the Madras Fisheries Department took over the tank
for the demonstration of fish culture and stocked it with catla, rohu,
mrigal, tilapia, chanos, and mirror carp. On 3 February 1960,
7 rohu and 7 mrigal of sizes 12-15 cm. (weighing 50 gr. or less) were
introduced and fourteen months later, on 5 April 1961, a rohu
weighing 11:25 lb. (5:2 kg.) was taken from the tank. Other species
have shown good growth in this tank, though not as rapid as rohu.
Mrigal grew to 5:5 lb. (2:5 kg.) in two years. Milk fish (Chanos
chanos) grew to 1 lb. (0-45 kg.) in one year and 1-6 Ib. (0°73 kg.) in
14 years, and two of them reached 3:3 Ib. (1:5 kg.) in 21 months. This
growth is comparable to that recorded by Chidambaram & Unni (1946).
The average weight of chanos caught from this tank is 400-500 ger.
Mirror carp (Cyprinus carpiv) grew to 1 Ib. (0-45 kg.) in 8 months,
1-5 Ib. (0°73 kg.) in 9 months, and 1-75 to 2:0 lb. (0°65 to 0-9 kg.) in
1 year, which is better than the growth recorded by Alikunhi &
Ranganathan (1946) for this fish. Catla grew to 6°6 lb. (3-0 kg.) in
15 months, but only a few had reached 4-4 Ib. (2:0 kg.) at the expiry
of 7 months. Fish production in this tank works out at i300 Ib.
(590 kg.) per acre in 1961 and 1076 Ib. (490 kg.) in 1962-63, a fairly
good yield for unfertilized water.

The ecological features of this productive tank are given below:

Chemical quality
Free carbon dioxide 0-0-1:76 p.p.m., Carbonate 0-0-26°8 p.p.m.,
Bicarbonate $81-6-183-0 p.p.m., Chloride 60-0 p.p.m., pH 7-7-9-2,

166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

dissolved Oxygen 2-1-11-0 mg/1, hardness 87-96:0 p.p.m. (as CaCO,).
Phosphate 0-0-0-08 p.p.m., Silicate 9-5 p:p.m., Calcium 24-0 p.p.m. and
electrolytic conductivity 420-470 » mho.

Plankton

The secchi disc visibility was low, 15-20 cm. only, owing to plankton
blooms. The net plankton 30-40 yJ/L, but the plankton volume was
greater when it was allowed to settle with Lugol’s iodine—600 y1/L. |
The dominant genera were, Microcystis, Oscillatoria, Euglena,
Trachelomonas, Ulothrix, Staurastrum, Coelastrum, Chlorococcum,
Scenedesmus, Nodularia, Melosira, Navicula, Cyclotella, Merismopedia,
and Oocystis among phyto-plankton, and Daphnia, Cyclops,
Brachionus, Eubranchipus, Nauplius larvae, and Anureae among zoo-
plankton. The zoo-plankton was as abundant as in cowdung-manured
nursery ponds. Abundant bottom fauna of gastropods, molluscs, and
chironomid larvae were also present. Marsilea quadrifoliata was
noted on the surface of the water. The soil had a pH of 7.8 with an
available Phosphorus content “Of 1:05 p.p.m., Calcium content of
40:0 p.p.m., and Ammonia content of 2-0 p.pm. The high alkalinity
due ‘to Bicarbonates, the alkaline pH, the medium hardness, presence
of nutrients such as Phosphate and Silicate, Calcium, etc., and the
high dissolved salts (as indicated by the electrolytic conductivity)
indicate the favourable conditions of the water. This is reflected in
the good plankton production which in turn has led to good growth
of fishes. |

FRESH WATER BIOLOGICAL STATION,

BHAVANISAGAR,
July 7, 1964.

A. SREENIVASAN,
Assistant Director

REFERENCES

ALIKUNHI, K. H., & RANGANATHAN, V.
(1946): Acclimatisation of Cyprinus car-
pio to the plains with notes on its develop-
ment. Curr. Sci. 15 : 233.

CHACKO, P. I. (1948) : Fish production
in religious institutional waters. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Sog. 47 : 764-766.

————, & GANAaApPATI, S. V. (1950) :
On the bionomics of the carp, Thynnich-
thys sandkhol (Sykes). Sci. & Cult.
15 : 484-485.

CHACKO, P. I., & GANAPATI, S. V.
(1951): Bionomics of the Mrigal, Cirrhina
mrigala (Ham.), in south Indian waters.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50: 13-19.

Cuacko, P. I., & KurRIAN, G. K.

(1948) : On the bionomics of Catla catla.

(C. and V.) in south Indian waters.
Curr. Sci. 17: 191.

CHIDAMBARAM, K., & UNNI, M. M.
(1946) : Variations in the rate of growth
of Chanos. Nature 157: 375-376.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 167

14. ON EOCYZICUS SP. (CONCHOSTRACA, BRANCHIOPODA)
AT PANCHGANI, W. INDIA

(With one text-figure)

Branchiopods in India ‘as in South Africa (Barnard 1929) are found
at high altitudes, on the Himalayan range in the north and ‘tthe
Sahyadri range along the west. The Tableland at Panchgani (N.
_ Satara altitude 4296 ft.) is one such place. {t is unique in that
within a radius of a few hundred yards, four phyllopods belonging
to four different orders of the sub-class Branchiopoda are found in
abundance. The forms recorded in the past are Triops orientalis
(Tiwari), 1951 (Notostraca), Streptocéphalus dichotomus Baird
_ (Anostraca), Leptestheriella gigas Karande & Inamdar, 1959 (Con-

chostraca), and Daphnia sp. (Cladocera).

In August 1956 while making routine collections of branchiopods
at Panchgani, twenty-five individuals of Eocyzicus sp., commonly
known as Estheria, were found, adding one form to the list of
phyllopods earlier recorded from this place. Since 1849 seven different
species of Evcyzicus have been reported from the Indian sub-continent,
three of them from Pakistan and four from India (personal communica-
tion from Dr. K. K. Tiwari, Zoological Survey of India).

These Eocyzicus forms could be collected only that once at
Panchgani and nearly twenty attempts made since 1956 to collect more
have failed. The need to collect these Estheriids is particularly ©
compeliing now as the specimens coilected in 1956 have been misplaced.
The total disappearance of these Eocyzicus forms amidst the
abundance of other branchiopods is very common in many phyllopod
Crustaceans (Fox 1949). The eggs of branchiopods need desiccation
prior to hatching (Barnard 1929; Karande & Inamdar 1961) and this
kind of prolonged but temporary absence may be caused by two
independent factors: (1) inadequate desiccation of the fertilized eggs, and
(2) insufficiency of water for wetting and the subsequent hatching
process.

The following are the taxonemic characters of the Eocyzicus sp.
found on the Tableland, Panchgani. ;

The shell is rounded-ovate with 30-35 growth-lines.

The anterior angle of the rostrum of the male is slightly more than
a right angle and the hind angle is rounded quadrate (Fig., 1). The
profile between the occipital angle and the eye is straight. The first
antenna bears 14-17 hairy papillae (Fig., 1). The second antenna has
13-15 segments on each ramus.

168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

Out of twenty-five specimens examined, carefully bearing in mind
Linder’s advice, twenty-three showed 19 pairs of limbs, and only one —

Eocyzicus sp.

1. The poe of male with first antenna; 2. ‘Hand’ of the first prehensile
limb of male; 3. The telson of male

(Semi-diagrammatic)

male and one female 20 pairs. In the female the 9th and 10th limbs
are ovigerous and in the male the first two limbs are prehensile. The
anterior margin of the ‘hand’ is deeply notched (Fig., 2).

The dorsal margin of the telson has 19-23 spines in the male,
whereas in the female there are 20-29 spines. The spines in both
are smooth and sub-equal except the first which is larger and stronger
than those that follow (Fig., 3). The enlargement of the foremost spine
on the upper margin of the telson is a useful ‘firsthand’ in the
identification of the family Cyzicidae. The paired plumose sensory
hairs on the telson are present. The dorsal surface of the body
segments shows a maximum number of 13 spines. Dimensions: up to.
5 to 7 mm. in the male and 5 to 6 mm. in the female. Some of the
female specimens had fertilized eggs under their bivalve shells and
were evidently well-grown adults. Colour: pale brown in formalin-
glycerine preserved specimens,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 169

_The large number of spines on the telson and the low number of
legs distinguish this form from its allied species and, therefore, are
features that need further examination. The latter feature particularly
may improve the description of the family Cyzicidae.

A favourably placed naturalist who can undertake frequent trips
to Panchgani during the monsoon months may be able to re-discover
this rare bivalve Crustacean and throw further light on its taxonomic
position. To help in the search the present communication gives a
detailed description of the important taxonomic characters.

We thank the. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, for
financial assistance towards the expenses of our collection trips.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,
‘THE INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE,
Bomsay 1-BR,

September 29, 1964.

ASHOK A. KARANDE
N. B. INAMDAR

REFERENCES

BARNARD, K. H. (1929): Contribu- KARANDE, A. A., & INAMDAR, N. B.

tions to the Crustacean fauna of S.
Africa. Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 29 : 181-270.

Fox, H. M. (1949): On Apus: its re-
discovery in Britain, nomenclature and
habits. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. 119:
693-702.

KARANDE, A. A., & INAMDAR, N. B.
(1959): A new species of the genus

(1961) : Some observations on the bio-
logy of the Conchostracan branchiopod
(Crustacea) Leptestheriella gigas Karande
& Inamdar. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
56: 215-225.

Tiwarl, K. K. (1951): Indian species
of the genus Apus (Crustacea, Branchi-
opoda) with description of two new

Leptestheriella from India. Ann. Mag.

species. Rec. Ind. Mus. 49 (2) : 197-206.
nat. Hist. Lond. 2 (13) : 305-308.

15. VARIANT BEHAVIOUR OF CHALYBION BENGALENSE
DAHLB. (HYMENOPTERA, SPHECIDAE)

Chalybion bengalense Dahlb. [Sceliphron violaceum (Fabr.)] (FAUNA
OF BRITISH INDIA, HYMENOPTERA 1 : 240) is a common domestic wasp
around this part of India. Jayakar & Mangipudi (1964) and the
present authors have recently made some contributions to the biology
of this species. The females look for convenient natural cavities
including derelict nests of other wasps (Jayakar & Spurway 1964b).
These they fill with spiders on one of which they have laid an egg.
These cells are then sealed with elaborate lids (Jayakar & Spurway
1964a). The North American species of Chalybion, which were pre-
viously believed (Peckham & Peckham 1905; Rau & Rau 1918) to build
their own cells, are now considered as semi-parasites on Sceliphron spp.,
either using disused cells of these species or emptying out the contents

170 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

of a cell, recently sealed by the latter, before re-stocking it themselves
(Muesebeck et al. 1951; Evans 1963). However, we have never seen
an individual of C. bengalense opening a cell occupied by another
species.

C. beéngalense does not ordinarily seal her cell until she has finished
its provisioning. Sceliphron madraspatanum, another of our common
Sphecids, and the North American S. caementarium, on the other
hand, put a temporary lid on a cell if they leave it overnight partly

provisioned. This lid differs visibly from the ‘permanent’ lid put on

the cell after it has been completely provisioned (Spurway et al. 1964:
Shafer 1949).

It is, therefore, interesting to record that we have seen at least
three individuals of C. bengalense putting lids on cells which were partly
provisioned. These lids were removed the next morning and provision-
ing continued. The wasps here described nested in holes in blocks
of wood in our house in Bhubaneswar (Unit 5, Type 8, No. 2).
Some of these blocks are disused attachments for bathroom fittings
and some are designed nest-boxes for wasps (see Jayakar & Spurway
1964b). As we have seen two individuals working simultaneously on
the same block we cannot be sure that cells sealed soon after each
other contain sibs. However as it is usual for several, or all, the holes

in a block to be filled very rapidly, and then for that block to be

neglected, sometimes for several months, we consider that these groups
usually, but not critically, represent the work of a single female, each
of which is referred to by the letters C. b. followed by an Arabic
numeral. On this criterion we have now records for about 24
individuals of this species since September 1962.

On the morning of 5/9/1963 a hole in a bathroom block was found
sealed (C. b. 7). The next day, at 08-36, this lid was found to have
been removed. There were 2 or 3 spiders in the cell. More spiders
were put in during that day but the cell was not sealed again.

On 18/3/64 C. b. 18 made a lid on 1. V which she removed in
the morning of 19/3, later sealing the cell permanently.

A cell (numbered ‘1. VIII) in a nest-box was sealed on 14/4/1964
(C. b. 21). The lid was noted as being white (see Jayakar & Spurway
1964a) and ‘concave’ (see Spurway ef al. 1964). The next morning,
at 09-33. the lid had been removed. Later in the day, the cell was
permanently sealed after further provisioning. 16/4 was a wet day.
On the afternoon of 17/4 another cell in the same box was sealed,
the lid being concave and pink (i.e. a thin layer of white on reddish
mud). On 18/4, the cell was reopened and re-sealed with a white
lid. On 19/4, the same cell was again reopened and re-sealed, the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ia

lid being white. Another cell !. IV was sealed on 20/4, reopened
and re-sealed on 21/4, and again on 22/4. No wasp worked on this
block till 2/5 when lids were removed by us, and the cocoons
extracted.

On 23/4, a hole in the bathroom block mentioned earlier was sealed
(C. b. 22). It was reopened and re-sealed on 24/4. Another cell
was sealed on 25/4, reopened and re-sealed on 26/4. These dates
suggest that these cells may be the work of the individual whose
activities were described in the last paragraph, i. that C. b. 22 and
C. b. 21 were one and the same wasp.

On 13/5, 1. VIII was again sealed. This nest-box was continually
worked on till 24/5, when 1. III was deserted with one spider in it.
During this period, the wasp (C. 5. 23) left a cell incompletely pro-
visioned overnight on 7 occasions on 4 of which she put on a temporary
lid but not on the other three. The two methods of leaving an
incompletely provisioned cell overnight were intermixed. Two cells
were each left unfinished for two consecutive nights. On 3 of these
4 nights, temporary lids were put on, but not on the fourth. It is
possible, but improbable, that C. b. 23 and C. b. 22 were the same
individual. |

It is necessary to summarise the evidence that the individual who
removed a lid was also the individual who constructed it. Firstly, as
in §. madraspatanum, the lid was removed at the beginning of a day’s
work. No other work was done between the construction and removal
- of a temporary lid, and no other cell was worked on until this cell had
been again sealed permanently. The ravishing of a completed cell by
another individual would not be expected to occur so regularly
immediately after closure, and it is even more improbable that the
same cell should be the victim on two consecutive days. No spiders
or debris were found removed from a reopened .cell as we find when
wasps prepare a previously used cell for re-use. The temporary lids
can sometimes be distinguished from permanent lids by the much
thinner layer of white put over the reddish mud. It is curious that
any white should be used at all. These temporary lids require more -
loads than the 1 or 2 out of which individuals of S$. madraspatanum
construct analogous structures. Finally, of the maximum of 5 wasps
who have been noted as constructing such lids, 3 constructed more
than one of them.

We have, therefore, intraspecific variation in the behaviour of this
Species, and it is probable that the behaviour of a single individual
may also vary in time. As these are the only examples of such
behaviour we have seen in this species it is probably rare,

172 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

The advantages of such a behaviour pattern are obvious. Parasites
of many kinds are common, for example Chrysid wasps who lay their
own eggs in the cell, and so are iabour parasites such as ants and
Salticid spiders who remove spiders stocked in the cells. It is
surprising that such behaviour has not been evolved in wasps other

than Sceliphron.

GENETICS AND BIOMETRY LABORATORY,

GOVERNMENT OF ORISSA,
BHUBANESWAR-3,

ORISSA, INDIA,

June 2, 1964.

~§. D. JAYAKAR
H. SPURWAY

REFERENCES

Evans, H. E. (1963) : Wasp Farm. New
York.

JAYAKAR, S.D., & MANGIPUDI, R. SHAS-

TRY (1964): Dormitories of Chalybion
bengalense (Hymenoptera, Sphecidae).
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61: 708-11.
& SPURWAY, H.
(1964a) : Use ’ of vertebrate faeces by the
Sphecoid wasp Chalybion bengalense
Dahlb. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60:
748-9,

MUESEBECK, C. F. W., KROMBEIN,
K. V., Townes, H. K. et al. (1951):
Hymenoptera of America North of
Mexico : Synoptic catalog. U.S. Dept.
Agric., Agric. Monograph No. 2.

PECKHAM, G. W., & PECKHAM, E.
(1905) : Wasps Social and Solitary. West-
minster.

Rau, P., & RAu, N. (1918): Wasp
Studies Afield. Princeton.

SHAFER, G. D. (1949): The ways of a

mud dauber. Stanford.

SPURWAY, H., DRONAMRAJU, K.R., &
JAYAKAR, S. D. (1964): One nest of
Sceliphron madraspatanum (Fabr.). J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61: 1-26.

———~— (1964b): Winter diapause in
squatter wasps Antodynerus flavescens
(Fabr.) and Chalybion bengalense (Dahlb.)
(Vespoidea and Specoidea). J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 61 : 662-7.
iB (ae

- A SYNONYM OF IXODES
IXODIDAE)

16. IXODES KERRI RAO, 1954
PETAURISTAE WARBURTON, 1933 (ACARINA

(With one text-figure)

In 1955 the author had the privilege of describing the first member
of the genus Ixodes ever collected in India south of the Himalayas.
It was described as Ixodes kerri, in the belief that it was a new
species after consultation with taxonomists specializing in ticks.
However, later when more specimens of the tick were available in
the Sagar-Sorab area of Mysore State it was realized that it could be
synonymous with Ixodes petauristae which had been described on the
basis of a single female from Ceylon by Warburton (1933),
Warburton’s specimen was also taken from a flying squirrel,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 173

During the author’s visit to London in 1962, the opportunity was
taken to examine the type specimen of Ixodes petauristae in the
British Museum (Natural History). It was found that the type
specimen tallied in most of the essential characteristics with Ixodes
kerri and therefore for taxonomical purposes Ixodes kerri has to be
designated as a synonym of Ixodes petauristae.

During the examination of the type specimen it was found that
the illustration by Warburton of the type specimen though accurate
in regard to. the body was not quite accurate so far as the basis
capitulum was concerned. From a study of a peculiar posture of
the palpi it was noticed that Warburton’s illustration had in fact been
made from the type specimen deposited. The inaccuracy in Warburton’s
illustration chiefly related to the shape of the postero-lateral border
of the basis capitulum.

In the illustration by the author of Jxodes kerri, also, the
concavity of the postero-lateral border of the basis capitulum has been
exaggerated. From a study of the material at the Virus Research
Centre it is seen that there is considerable variation in the shape of
the basis capitulum. It would be inadvisable at this stage to use it
for taxonomical pukposes. However, in order to give a clear
description and to set right the inaccuracy, the basis capitulum of
Ixodes petauristae (type specimen in the British Museum) is re-
illustrated here. i

Fig. 1. Dorsal view of the basis capitulum of the type specimen of Ixodes
Petauristae Warburton, 1933

Two species of /xodes are now known in south India: J/xodes
petauristae and I. ceylonensis. They are so far known to be mainly
concentrated in the heavy rainfall areas of the Western Ghats of
Mysore State. There are also a few specimens of /xodes sp. from

i174. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

Vellore (Madras State) and Bhimashankar (Maharashtra State). These
are all new distributional records. Studies on their distribution,
bionomics, and potentialities for disease transmission are being
separately dealt with.

VIRUS RESEARCH CENTRE’,
POONA, T. RAMACHANDRA RAO

January 11, 1965.

REFERENCES

Rao, T. R. (1955) : Ixodes kerri,a new centor imitans, Amblyomma laticaudae
species of tick from a flying squirrel and Aponomma draconis, with notes on
from Southern India (Acarina: Ixodi- three previously described species,
dae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52: Ornithodorus franchinii Tonelli-Rondelli,
860-864. Haemaphysalis cooleyi Bedford and

WARBURTON, C. (1933): On five new Rhipicephalus maculatus Neumann. Para-
species of ticks (Arachnida : Ixodoidea) sitol. 24: 558-568.

Ixodes petauristae, I. ampullaceus, Derma-

17. DESCRIPTION OF THE NYMPH AND LARVA OF
IXODES PETAURISTAE WARBURTON, 1933

&
(With four figures in one plate)

Ixodes petauristae was first described by Warburton (1933) on the
basis of a single female collected from a flying squirrel, ‘Petaurista
philippensis Link’, in Ceylon. Rao (1955) described both the male
and the female of Ixodes kerri collected from Petaurista petaurista
philippensis Elliot in south India. This was the first Ixodes found in
India south of the Himalayas but subsequently large numbers of
two species of Ixodes have been collected in the forests of Mysore
State—Ixodes kerri, now regarded as a synonym of J. pefauristae, and
Ixodes ceylonensis Kohls.

Adults of 7. petauristae are common ectoparasites of the Giant
Squirrel (Ratufa indica) and the Flying Squirrel (Petaurista petaurista
philippensis) in Mysore State, south India, and immature stages have
been commonly found parasitizing small mammals of the forest:
shrews, rats, mice, and squirrels. They are occasionally found on
monkeys but rarely on birds. The present study is based on material

1 The Virus Research Centre is jointly maintained by the Indian Council of
Medical Research and The Rockefeller Foundation. The Centre also receives a
generous grant from the PL 480 Funds from the National Institutes of Health, U.S.A.

JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Ixodes petauristae Warburton

1. Nymph: dorsal view; 2. Nymph: ventral view; 3. Larva: dorsal view;
4. Larva: ventral view

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 175

reared in the field laboratory at Sagar, Mysore State, south India
(Rajagopalan 1963). As the nymph and the larva of this species were
unknown they are described and illustrated here.

I. petauristae Warburton

NyMPH (Figs. 1-2)

Body: length, excluding capitulum, 1-40', width 0-73; oval in
shape, posterior margin rounded; marginal fold prominent, anal groove
horseshoe-shaped. Capitulum: length, from tips of palpi to posterior
margin of dorsal basis, 0°64; width at level of cornua, 0-39. Basis
capituli, dorsally triangular in outline; posterior corners of dorsal
basis highly sclerotised to give a cornua-like appearance; posterior
margin almost straight dorsally; surface of dorsal basis with fine
punctations. Ventrally, the basis is constricted posterior to the
_ auriculae; posterior margin broadly rounded at corners; auriculae
distinct as flattened lateral extensions. Palpi: length of second and
third segments 0°56, second segment distinctly longer than the third.
Hypostome: length 0:27, width at mid length, 0-08; dentition 2/2,
about 12 teeth per file; lateral denticles larger. Scutum: length 0-91,
greatest width 0-72; shape as illustrated, rounded posteriorly, with
postero-lateral margins very slightly concave; scapula slight and short,
- lateral carinae distinct; cervical grooves shallow, divergent posteriorly
and extending up to a little beyond the mid length. Punctations fine,
with a few larger ones scattered in the posterior region. A few short
fine hairs present. Legs: moderate in size and length. Coxa I to IV
each with a distinct, posteriorly directed triangular external spur. The
postero-internal margin of Coxa I angular in outline and spur-like in
appearance. Tarsus I, length 0-56 tapering gradually; tarsus IV more
slender than tarsus I, length 0-43 and tapering gradually (Fig. 1).
Spiracular plate (Fig. 2): shape as illustrated; greatest length 0-18
and greatest width 0:21.

LarRVA (Figs. 3-4) ,

Length from tip of palpi to posterior body margin, 0:98; body |
oval, length 0°78, width 0:59 and widest near mid length. Posterior
margin broadly rounded; anal groove very faint and does not encircle
the anus in front. Capitulum: dorsal basis, width 0-21; posterior
margin of dorsal basis nearly straight, basis constricted posterior to
the auriculae. Palpi: slender; 0:56 long and 0:05 wide; palpal

+ All measurements are in millimetres and are averages of three specimens.

*
176 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

articles 2 and 3 not distinctly separated. Hypostome: length 0:14;
width 0:05; dentition 2/2 with about nine teeth in outer file and 8
teeth in inner file. Scutum: shape as illustrated, slightly wider than
long; fength 0-42 and width 0:44. Cervical grooves appear to be
divergent both anteriorly and posteriorly. Lateral carinae absent.
Légs: Coxa I with a promineni, triangular, posteriorly-directed external
spur. Coxa II with a smaller postero-external spur. No distinct spur
on Coxa III but the postero-external margin of Coxa III is sclerotized
to form a ridge-like projection. Tarsus I tapers gradualiy, length
0-25, width at base 0-09. Tarsus III as illustrated.

VIRUS RESEARCH CENTRE!,
POONA,
January 11, 1965.

P. K. RAJAGOPALAN

REFERENCES

RAJAGOPALAN, P. K. (1963): Rearing species of ticks (Arachnida, Ixodoidea)

of Ixodes petauristae Warburton, 1933 in

Laboratory. Indian Jour. Malariology

17 : 259-262.

Ixodes petauristae, I. ampullaceus, Derma-
centor imitans, Amblvomma _laticaudae,
and Aponomma draconis, with notes on

three previously described species,
Ornithodorus franchinii Tonelli-Rondelli,
Haemaphysalis cooleyi Bedford and
Rhipicephalus maculatus Neumann. Para-
sitol. 24: 558-568.

RAo, T. R. (1955) : Ixodes kerri, a new
species ‘of tick from a flying squirrel from
southern India (Acarina : Ixodidae). J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52 : 860-864.

WARBURTON, C. (1933) : On five new

18. FRUITING OF PLUMERIA

With reference to Mr. Vaid’s note under this heading (1964, J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61 : 215) both the Plumeria species, acutifolia
and rubra, and a third species whose name I do not know, with
white flowers and darker green leaves with a rounded, not pointed,
apex, fruit freely in Mombasa, and obviously hybridise judging from
the numerous intermediate trees that exist.

Climatic conditions in Mombasa would be more akin to those in
Bombay than to those of northern India.

P.O. Box 5026,
MompBaSaA, EAST AFRICA,
November 7, 1964.

D. G. SEVASTOPULO

2 The Virus Research Centre is jointly maintained by the Indian Council
of Medical Research and The Rockefeller Foundation. The Centre also receives
a generous grant from the PL 480 Funds from the National Institutes of Health,

U.S.A.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 177

19. MICROCOCCA MERCURIALIS (LINN.) BENTH. : AN
ADDITION TO THE FLORA OF THE UPPER GANGETIC
PLAIN

During our extensive survey of the vegetation of Agra District,
Micracocca mercurialis (Linn.) Benth. in Hook. Niger Flora 503,
~ 1849 (Syn. Claoxylon mercurialis Thwaites, Enum. 271; F.B.I. 5 : 412,
1887), a small herb belonging to the family Euphorbiaceae, has been
found to occur at some places like Kailash Forest, Keetham Forest, etc.
It is interesting to note that the species is usually restricted to the
ravines of Agra District. It is common in semi-shaded and moist places
of the ravines and its associates are Dichanthium annulatum (Forsk.)
Stapf Fimbristylis dichotoma (Linn.) Vahl, Eclipta alba (Linn.)
Hassk., etc. The plant is a typically rainy season annual, as thie
seedlings appear after the first few showers of late July and flourish
up to October, after which with the fall in humidity they wither
and die off.

Older literature cites this species from south India; recently it has
been reported from Khetri (Rajasthan); but there is no previous record
of its occurrence from the Upper Gangetic Plain.

Its spread from the comparatively humid regions of the South to
dry regions of Rajasthan and the Upper Gangetic Plain is of interest and
needs further cytological and ecological investigation. Our findings
regarding the number of anthers and other details of the plant species
are in conformity with those of Nair & Thomas (1962) in Curr. Sci.

q 31 : 26.
DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,
AGRA COLLEGE, K. M. M. DAKSHINI'
AGRA, R. K. S. CHAUHAN

October 6, 1964.

20. POGONATUM SUBPERICHAETIALE CARD. ET VARD.:
A NEW RECORD FROM THE HIMALAYAS

(With a plate) |
While working on a moss collection of Garhwal-Himalayas, the
authors came across a very interesting and rare species of the genus
Pogonatum of family Polytrichaceae, which has been identified as
Pogonatum subperichaetiale Card. et Vard. Brotherus (1925) listed

+ Present address: Department of Botany, University of Delhi, Delhi 6
12

178 JOURNAL, BOMBA¥ -NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

25 species of this genus from India and gave the GELL OHae of
P. subperichaetiale from south India only.

The present specimen was collected at Hamkund (Garhwal) from
an altitude of 3500 m. on 31 October 1962 by Dr. U. C. Bhattacharya
of Northern Circle, Botanical Survey of India, Dehra Dun, who as
a Botanist accompanied the Nilgiris Expedition (Garhwal-Himalayas)—
1962, and it is registered as No. Bhattacharya 4. This is the first record
of the taxon from the Himalayas. The only reference of this species,
so far, is of the type specimen collected on moist ground from Pambar
Ravine, Kodaikanal, from an altitude of 2400 m. by Rev. Fr. G. Foreau
on 15 December 1912. There has not been any other report of this
taxon from any part of India or from any other place. Foreau (1961)
in ‘Moss Flora of Palni Hills’ mentions only the type specimen
against this species, and has not referred to any subsequent collection
even from that area.

Species of this genus are often put with Polytrichum Dill. by some
authors, but are readily distinguished by their cylindric capsules. The
species in question comes close to Pogonatum perichaetiale (Mont.)
Jaeg., because of its smooth margin, but differs from it by its
acuminate apex and the upturned margin of the leaf, and also in its
long sheathing perichaetial bracts.

In the present paper a detailed description of this taxon with
illustrations based on the new collection is given.

Pogonatum subperichaetiale Card. et Vard. in Rev. Bryol. 50 : 25,
t< 1, hig... 15a=b,- 1923;

Plants in loose tufts, brownish-green. Stem 1:5 to 2-0 cm. tall,
simple, sometimes: forked. Leaves scale-like in lower half, higher up
large (about 5 mm. long), when dry erect and clasping the stem, when
moist erecto-patent, from an ovate sheathing base lingulate, at apex
projected into a short acumen, margin plane slightly upturned; nerve
smooth at back, stepping out into a mucro, very broad on the face of
the leaf and covered with 30-40 lamellae occupying almost the entire
limb; each lamella consisting of 7-9 cells, the uppermost large,
roundish to elliptic, thick-walled, brownish, not papillose; areolations
at the base of the limb transversely elliptical, very incrassate, 14
wide, becoming roundish-quadrate or sub-rectangular below, at the
base rectangular, thin-walled, 18 uw Wide, 3-5 times longer than broad,
hyaline near the margin, pale-yellowish near the nerve. Perichaetial
bracts with long sheaths, longly acuminate. Seta reddish brown,
2 cm. tall, Capsule erect or slightly inclined, oblong-cylindrical,
constricted below the mouth, pale green, finely papillose, rugose when

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc.

2eerno £

Pogonatum subperichaetiale Card. et Vard.

4. cells from the shoulder region;

10.

7. capsule when dry ;

6. basal cells ;
of capsule from the peristome region ;

me
us O
ss
25
Gy
OC bh
on
wig
=e
ee
ae _ a
io)
aD
poke ee
2S oe
Ba
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= FQ
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aoe
“= 20
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pe pay

Syste eaetsipeysen Poets

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 179

dry. Opercuium large with a long beak. Peristome teeth 16, which
later on, due to splitting, become 32. orange-brown. Spores circular,
16 » wide.

The material has been deposited in the Cryptogomic Herbarium
of the Headquarters Organization of the Botanical Survey of India,
Calcutta, and a part in the Herbarium of Northern Circle, Botanical
Survey of India, Dehra Dun, bearing Field No. Bhattacharya 4.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors express their thanks to Dr. U. C. Bhattacharya,
Botanist, Northern Circle, Botanical Survey of India, Dehra Dun, for
putting his valuable collection at their disposal.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, B. M. WADHWA'!
CALCUTTA, J. N. VOHRA
October 12, 1964.

REFERENCES

BrotHerus, V. F. (1925): in Engler Palni Hills. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

and Prantl, Die Natiirlichen Pflazen- 58: 13-47.

familien, ed. 2. 10: 1-542; VARDE, R. P. de la (1923) : Musci
ForEAU, G. (1961) : Moss Flora of Madurenses. Rev. Bryol. 50: 17-27.

21. MELHANIA HAMILTONIANA WALL. : A NEW
RECORD FOR BOMBAY STATE?

(With one plate)

In the present note, Melhania hamiltoniana Wall., a common plant
of the plains of north India, is put on record for the first time from
Bombay State.

Melhania hamiltoniana Wall. Pi. Asiat. Rar. | : t. 77; Hooker in
-Fl. Brit. Ind. 1 : 372, 1874.

An erect undershrub, about 1 m. high with spreading branches.
Leaves ovate sub-cordate, unequally toothed, pubescent, dark green
above, white beneath. Peduncles axillary and terminal, usually three-
flowered. Bracteoles recurved at the edges. Sepals lanceolate,
cuspidate, villous. Petals orange-yellow, obovate, longer than the

1 Present Address: Botanical Survey of India, Central Circle, 10 Chatham
Lines, Allahabad

2 The term is used in its former significance to include the present States of
Gujarat and Maharashtra.

180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

sepals. Staminodes ligulate, alternating with perfect stamens. Capsule —

villous, shorter than the calyx, five-celled, cells many-seeded; seeds
oblong, obscurely four-sided, truncate and tubercled.
The plant was found on rocky hills in the vicinity of. Idar.
Flowering time: August-November.
Fruiting time: October-December.

Herbarium specimens: Nos. SB 782, 783, 784, 785, collected near —

Idar, on rocky hills (19 October 1961).

Critical Notes. Hooker mentions the plant as occurring in Western
Peninsula and Burma. The plant is fairly common in north, India,
from where possibly it has been introduced into the Idar region.
Four species of Melhania have been recorded by Cooke from the
Bombay Presidency; Melhania tomentosa Stocks is the only species
reported by Cooke from Deesa, Gujarat. It would be interesting to
study the range of distribution of Melhania hamiltoniana Wall.

The authors are grateful to Dr. G. Taylor, Director, Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew, for identifying the plant.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY, | Be aR: CHAVAN
M.S. UNIVERSITY OF BARODA, | S. D. SABNIS
BARODA, | S. J. BEDI

August 10, 1964.

22. NEW RECORD OF UTRICULARIA MINUTISSIMA VAHL
IN SOUTH INDIA

(With one plate)

—

The plant forming the subject of this note was found growing in
association with Utricularia coerulea Linn. and Utricularia uliginosa
Vahl in water-loggzed scil at Palghat, Kerala State, south India, in
October 1963. On detailed examination it was found to be an
unfamiliar species of Utricularia. Hence dried specimens together
with detailed drawings were sent to Kew for identification. They
identified the specimen as Utricularia minutissima Vahl. Hooker (in
FI. Br. Ind. 4: 334) mentions this as an imperfectly known species.
In view of the fact that this ill-defined species, as far as is known to
me, has not so far been recorded from south India, I give a com-
prehensive description of it based on fresh specimens.

JOURN. BomMBAY Nat. HIstT. Soc.

| THE MAHARAJA SAYAJIRAQ UNIVERSITY OF
BARODA
BOTANY DEPARTMENT

HERBARIUM

No SBI BS
: pag oe Siegen Senate nenabae an
Geons Rare C2 a8 co
Spieehe$ anenecirmansenra “Ravaitlanions tal

ae ae Nm as ate eestor

Leg] RY eran rajarat. ie Jafar).

Remar ki mn oon ody plant; ees
porns. ye tMakitrod bt QA... collec Ls

wy frond Ma Op. off Kom ACCKY sess

? Pa

CBC K cme ALA aad A cre AM SS
oeation 5 hed
$> On Sabrury
eas JI-Je 6) iCollectyd br

Melhania hamiltoniana Wall.

JOURN. BomMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc.

Utricularia minutissima Vahl

1. Entire plant ; 2. Sterile bract and bracteole ; 3. Fertile bract and bracteoles; 4. Flower |
(front view); 5. Calyx; 6. Corolla (side view); 7. Spread-open corolla; 8. Mature |
stamen; 9. Pistil; 10. T. S. of ovary; 11. L. S. of flower; 12. Fruit; 13. SeedjR
14. Floral diagram; 15. Bladder (side view); 16. Bladder (back view); 17. Bladder (front |
view); 18. L.S. of bladder; 19. Absorptive hair; 20. Hair on body surface |

“MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 181
_- DESCRIPTION

Plants small, slender, prostrate, with erect scapes (Fig. 1).
Stem mycelium-like, profusely branched, spreading to diameter of
4-5 cm., with numerous very minute bladders. Leaf simple, alternate.
linear, about 1 cm. long, emerging from underground branches,
bright green, base filiform, transparent, with one or two bladders.
Scape 1-5-4 cm. long, simple, erect, filiform, brownish purple, with
sparsely arranged bracts, 1-3-flowered; bracts alternate, simple, up to
0:3 mm. long, purplish, ovate, apex acute, attached by base; upper
flowers fertile, lower ones sterile (Figs. 2, 3). Flowers 2-25 mm. long,
subsessile, pink, medianly zygomorphic, hermaphrodite, hypogynous,
bracteolate; bracteoles 2, lateral, subulate, and nearly as long as bracts
(Fig. 3). Calyx about 1 mm. long, purplish, bi-lipped, upper lip
obliquely held, acute, lower lip outer, horizontally held, emarginate
or with rounded apex (Fig. 5). Corolla bi-lipped, upper lip oblong,
emarginate, nearly hidden by the upper calyx lip, light pink; lower
lip broader, shortly 3-lobed, spurred, defiexed at the middle and
held over the throat of spur, pink with a few purple lines; spur
horizontal and up-turned, conically tubular, obtuse, protruding beyond
corolla lip and light pink (Fig. 6).. Stamens 2, epipetalous, minute,
filament flat, slightly incurved, twisted once; anthers 2-celled, 4-lobed,
introrse, spreading open at anthesis. Mature anthers remain connate
in front of pistil just below stigma (Fig. 8). Gynoécium minute,
bi-carpellary, syncarpous, superior; ovary unilocular, thin-walled,
ovules numerous on free central placenta; style short, stigma with
depressed centre, margins two-lipped, anterior lip protruding much
beyond the rim, spreading, papillose; posterior lip shortly conical,
erect, and without papillae (Fig. 9). Fruit very small, held obliquely
upon scape, enclosed in persistent calyx, globular, wall brownish,
translucent, opening longitudinally along the anterior side or on both
sides (Fig. 12). Seeds very minute, globose, amber-coloured, smooth
with reticulate testa (Fig. 13).

The bladder (Figs. 15-18) is very remarkable in its minuteness,
beautiful appearance, and simplicity of insect-capturing mechanism.
The stalk is comparatively long, uniting with bladder wall on posterior
top corner so that the bladder hangs from the stalk. Cells in front
of the stalk forming the roof of the bladder are transversely elongated
and arranged as a pavement.. This is flanked on either side by an
oblique fan-like wing of paired vesicular cells; one in-each pair with
a clavate gland-like cell at tip. At the anterior end bladder wall is
extended up into a flat, acute, slightly bent plate. Between this and

182 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

the posterior wing is another, smaller, oblique wing, of a few cells bent
backward. Wall cells between these two wings are also pavement-like.
Orifice of bladder very narrow, circular, situated at centre on top
between the wings, so that the ascending pavements lead to it.
The orifice is continued into the bladder as a conical tube hanging
down from the roof and opening at the apex. Around this, the inner
surface of bladder wall bears a few 4-rayed absorptive hairs lifted
upon slender stalks. The rest of the inner surface is naked. Outer
surface of bladder as well as other parts bear short vesicular cells
joined to a small cell on the body by a very small cubical cell.

Cyclops, rotifers, and diatoms were found inside many bladders.
Absence of sensitive hairs and trap-doors suggests that the victims fall
inside the bladder accidentally. The oblique wings and the ascending
paths between them lead the victims crawling on the surface, straight
into the precipitous orifice. Escape from within the bladder is
virtually impossible, because the exit is at the apex of a hanging tube.
The 4-rayed hairs at the base of the tube also prevent free access to
the exit.

The author is deeply indebted to Prof. N. A. Erady for kindly
providing all facilities and for his valuable guidance. The encourage-
ment offered by Sri K. Kesavan Nair is also acknowledged with
gratitude.

GOVT. VICTORIA COLLEGE,

PALGHAT, KERALA STATE, R. VASUDEVAN NAIR
January 29, 1964. ,

23. PRESERVATIVES FOR FRESHWATER ALGAE

Different algal workers use different fluid preparations for
preserving algae for taxonomic purposes. West & Fritsch (1927)
recommend 2-4% formalin as a preservative. According to Smith
(1950) the simplest preservatives are 2-4% formalin or a mixture of
formalin, acetic acid, and alcohol. Prescott (1951) prefers formalin
aceto-alcohol and Transeau’s Solution with glycerine as preservatives.
For preserving the green colour of the algae, Keefe’s Solution (Keefe,
1926) is supposed to be the most satisfactory.

It was thought worth while to make a comparison by preserving
the same algae in different preservatives for some time. Fresh
collections of Volvox sp. Chaetophora sp., Oedogonium spp.,
Pithophora sp., Cladophora sp. Rhizoclonium sp., Spirogyra spp.:

-_ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 183

Cosmarium spp., Closterium spp., Nitella sp., Euglena spp., Trachelo-
monas spp., Anabaena spp., Aulosira sp., Gloeotrichia spp., Oscillatoria
spp., and Lyngbya spp. were made for this purpose during eles
to December 1957 from Bombay and its environs.

‘Each alga was preserved in triplicate in the - following nine
preservatives: (1) ‘Transeau’s Solution or Six-three-one Solution
(six parts water, three parts 95% alcohol, one part formalin),
(2) Transeau’s Solution with 5 c.c. of glycerine per 100 c.c.
of solution, (3) 4% formalin, (4) 4% formalin with 5 c.c.
of glycerine per 100 c.c. of solution, (5) 2% formalin, (6) 2%
formalin with 5 c.c. of glycerine per 100 c.c. of solution, (7) Formalin-
aceto-alcohol (formalin 5 c.c., glacial acetic acid 5 c.c., 50% alcohol
90 c.c.), (8) Mixture of formalin, acetic acid, and alcohol (glacial acetic
acid 30 c.c., formalin 65 c.c., and 50% alcohol 1000 c.c.), (9) Keefe’s
Solution (50% alcohol 90 c.c., formalin 5 c.c., glycerine 2°5 c.c., copper
chloride 10 gm., uranium nitrate 1:5 gm.). |

The algae were preserved, after a careful microscopical examina-
tion, in specimen tubes of borosil glass with cork stoppers, and were
examined after five years. It is found that there is not much difference
in the preserving capacity of the first eight preservatives mentioned
above. However, formalin-aceto-alcohol is slightly better for most
of the Chlorophyceae and particularly desmids. 2-4% formalin with
or without glycerine slightly dissolves the colonial mucilage of
Gloeotrichia spp. but apparently has no effect on the mucilage of
Chaetophora sp. Keefe’s Solution is good for preserving the green
colour of some of the Chlorophyceae like Pithophora sp., particularly
the akinetes, Volvox sp., Cladophora sp., and also of Euglena spp., but
it gives an unnatural colour to other Chlorophyceae. This solution
also gives an unnatural colour to the members of Cyanophyceae. In
all the preservatives except Keefe’s Solution the material occasionally
gets black, possibly owing to the reaction of the cork stopper.

. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The present work was done in the Botany Department, Institute of
Science, Bombay. The author takes the opportunity to thank Professor
Ella A. Gonzalves, the then Professor of Botany, Institute of Science,
for encouragement.

BOTANY DEPARTMENT,

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, N. D. KAMAT
NAGPUR 1,

November 11, 1963.

184 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)
REFERENCES

Keere, A. M. (1926): A preserving Algae of the United States, Second Ed.
fluid for green plants. Science, N. S.,64: New York.
331-332. West, G.S., & FrRItscu, F. E. (1927) :

PRESCOTT, G. W. (1951) : Algae of A treatise on the British Freshwater
the Western, ‘Great Lakes area. Michigan. Algae. Sameer:

SmitH, G. M. (1950): The Freshwater

THE OPENING OF HORNBILL HOUSE : 13-3-1965

Our new premises, Horneitt House, in the Prince of Wales
Museum compound, were formally opened by Mr. M. C. Chagla, Union
Minister for Education, on Saturday the 13th March 1965. Mr. Chagla
expressed keen interest, and commended the work of cur Society. He
remarked that his own eyes were opened to the wealth of wild life
in our country when it was pointed out to him by foreigners
who were always puzzled by our own apathy to it. He hoped that
the efforts of the Society would succeed is turning the tide and give
our young people a real enthusiasm for the treasures at their doorstep.

Mr. Karl Khandalawala, representing the Trustees of the Prince
of Wales Museum to whose large-heartedness we owe the permission
to build on the present site, also spoke and welcomed the Society kindly
as a good neighbour should.

We give below the text of Dr. SAlim Ali’s speech delivered on the
occasion: - |

‘Shri Chagla, Ladies, and Gentlemen,

‘In the unfortunate absence of our President, Shri Cherian, the
Governor of Bombay, I have inherited the privilege of welcoming you
on this momentous occasion in the history of the Bombay Natural
History Society—an occasion for which we have waited, then
despaired, then hoped, for over three quarters of a century. The Society
was formed in 1883 by a group of 8 residents of Bombay—of whom, it
is gratifying to recall, two were Indians—for the purpose of
getting together, exhibiting natura] history specimens collected by
them in their respective fields of interest, exchanging notes and
observations, and for generally keeping alight the spark of common
interest in the animals and plants and other natural productions
around them, and fostering that interest in others.

‘This is the seed from which the Society has grown. In the
beginning this small group used to meet about once a month in the
Victoria and Albert Museum in Victoria Gardens. Later, as more
kindred spirits rallied round the nucleus and the collections began
to swell, the need for their proper housing and care became urgent.
They were offered part of his business premises by Mr. H. M. Phipson
in what was then 18 Forbes Street, where Greaves Cotton & Co. now
stands. Phipson is really entitled to be called the Father of the
Society. Himself an exceedingly keen amateur naturalist, he nursed

186 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

and nurtured the Society in its early years in a spirit of dedication, and
it was during his long term as Honorary Secretary, followed by that of
his equally dedicated colleague W. S. Millard, that the true foundations
of the Society were laid.

‘When Phipson’s business expanded he shifted to larger premises
just across the street, to No. 6 Apollo Street—later to be renumbered
114. I may mention in parenthesis, particularly for the interest of
our Education Minister, who may probably know it already, that this
same historic building, unhappily doomed soon to disappear,
was at one time, about 1860, the residence of the Chief Justice of
Bombay, when the old High Court was within a stone’s throw of it.
In these premises the Society’s offices, library, and museum lived and
grew and outgrew for over 70 years. In 1934 its reference collections
were, Owing to congestion of space, transferred to the then newly

completed Natural History wing of the Prince of Wales Museum. —

Shortage of accommodation even there compelled the office and library
to continue in Phipson’s premises. This separation of the research
collections from the library rendered systematic scientific ‘work ex-
tremely difficult and inconvenient as it necessitated constant shuttling
between two places separated by several hundred yards of congested
public thoroughfare. The last straw came when Phipson & Co. were
squeezed out of their flourishing wine business by the advent of
Prohibition in Bombay and obliged to dispose of their premises in
Apollo Street. Thus orphaned, the Government of Maharashtra came
to our rescue by providing funds for hiring temporary but more
spacious accommodation for the office and library on Walkeshwar
Road, to which, under an arrangement with the Prince of Wales
Museum, were also shifted the Society’s research collections. It was
at this period that negotiations with the Government of Maharashtra
and the Union Ministry of Scientific Research for a permanent home
for the Society, which had already started much earlier, were
intensified. What you see here today is the end-product of those
negotiations. On behalf of the Society I would like to express our
deepest gratitude to the Governments of India and of Maharashtra
State, to the Trustees of the Prince of Wales Museum, and to all those
individuals, official and non-official, whose sympathetic interest ‘and
efforts have contributed towards this gratifying conclusion.
‘A word about the proposed naming of this building as Hornbill
House may not be without interest. In the Society’s offices in
Phipson & Co.’s premises it kept in an adjoining wired-off cabin a

Great Indian Hornbill as pet and mascot. This bird lived with us

for over 26 years, It became a great favourite with visitors, and

THE OPENING OF HORNBILL HOUSE : 13-3-1965 187

almost synonymous with the Society. It seemed to enjoy itself as
much as it amused and entertained visitors by clever little antics and
games. One of its star turns was to catch in its beak with unerring
skill a tennis ball thrown fairly hard at it from a distance of several
yards. William, as he was called in deference to his enormous bill,
died through misadventure by overeating the wire of his cage. His
mortal remains have been perpetuated as the foraging father in the
hornbill group exhibited in the bird gallery of the Prince of Wales
Museum, as his memory is now being perpetuated in this building of
the Society of which he was certainly the most effective Public
Relations Officer.

‘I shall now outline some of the Society’s more important acti-
vities and achievements :

‘1. The Society has, in the course of its long existence, built up
and maintains a collection of zoological material from the Indian sub-
region which is amongst the finest and most complete in the world.
This applies more particularly to Birds and Mammals. This material
was acquired through specially organized collecting expeditions and
regional faunal surveys conducted by the Society departmentally as
well as through the active co-operation of its widespread membership
and the financial support of its patrons and well wishers. These
collections are available for examination and study not only
to members of the Society but to all zoology students and
scientific institutions in India and abroad. It is gratifying to mention
that many of our collections have formed the basis of important
treatises and standard scientific publications throughout the world.
The new edition of the FAUNA OF INDIA series volumes on
Mammals was made possible by, and is based almost exclusively on, the
extensive collections made during the mammal survey of India, Burma,
and Ceylon organized and carried out by the Society over several
years preceding the First World War. This vast material has since
been split up and distributed among various scientific institutions in
India and Pakistan as well as abroad, proving for them a veritable
windfall. The lesser attention seemingly devoted to the study of
plants is far from real. In fact the Society’s Journal always carries
a high proportion of important papers on Indian botany, and we have
the privilege of having the distinguished botanist Fr. H. Santapau, a
Vice-President of the Society, as our botanical editor and expert
consultant.

‘That the Society does not also maintain a plant collection is
merely in order to avoid unnecessary duplication, it being recognized

188 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

that there are other institutions in Bombay, e.g. St. Xavier’s College,
which are better placed for handling botanical material and with
whom of course the Society works in the closest association.

2. The Society publishes a natural history journal, at present

three issues a year, which has enjoyed unbroken publication since its
inception in 1885. It is now in its 61st volume. It carries popular
illustrated articles as well as more technical scientific papers on every

branch of the natural history of India and adjoining countries, and.

of the Oriental region in general. The Journal has earned an enviable
international reputation for its high standard, and is widely acclaimed

the finest natural history journal of the East. It is no exaggeration

to say that no research or documentation on Indian animals and plants
can be complete, or is indeed possible, without constant delving into
this unique repository of scientific knowledge.

‘In addition to the Journal the Society publishes attractive,
well-illustrated books for the popularization of science covering a wide
range of natural history subjects. Some of these are displayed here
and I would invite you all to inspect them later. These publications
are seldom free from financial risk which the Society can ill afford,
and often also involve considerable financial sacrifice. They are
undertaken not so. much with the profit motive as to be in keeping
with the primary aims and objects of the Society—namely to popularise
and disseminate interest in and knowledge of natural history among the
public and thereby enable it to derive the fullest economic benefit

and aesthetic enjoyment from the natural products—the flora and

fauna with which our country abounds. |

‘3. Another activity, in which the Society has been engaged for
the past 15 years with the financial support of the Government of
Bombay (now, of Maharashtra), is a scheme for Nature Study educa-

tion in schools by means of talks. films, and other visual aids in the

classroom, by guided lectures and tours in the Natural History Section
of the Prince of Wales Museum, the Zoo and the Aquarium, and also
by nature rambles in the beautiful countryside surrounding the City.
It is in an activity that has proved its usefulness in arousing interest in
school children as well as their teachers. With the better financial
assistance we hopefully anticipate, and the facilities that will be
available in this new building, we plan to develop and expand this
activity to cover other parts of the State as well. It is realized that
the lack of interest shown by our young people in nature is largely due
to the want of encouragement from their parents at home and from
their teachers in school, a disability we aim to remove for future
generations. In connection with the Nature Education Scheme the

THE OPENING OF HORNBILL HOUSE : 13-3-1965 189

—Society has published simply written, attractively illustrated, and well-
printed booklets on Bitds, Mammals, and Plants in English, Hindi,
Marathi, and Gujarati. Although priced at only a few Paise per copy,
the response from Education Departments, school libraries, teachers,
parents, and the general public alike has been disappointing.

“The turnover has been too slow and tardy for us to afford
the considerable expansion in the series that was contemplated. The
sales of the Hindi editions have, paradoxically enough, been the most
disappointing of all. And this despite the fact that our late Prime
Minister Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru himself had by personal letters
drawn the attention of the Chief Ministers of the Hindi-speaking States
to the excellence and availability of the booklets.

‘4, An activity which the Society has recently undertaken and
developed, and which is of far reaching international public health
importance, is the investigation of the problem of bird migration in
India and its bearing on the trans-continental dissemination of
arthropod-borne viruses. With the financial sponsorship of WHO
and the technical co-operation of the Virus Research Centre in: Poona
and certain virus research laboratories in the USSR, the Society is
Operating a project for nefting and marking migratory birds with
numbered, return-addressed aluminium rings to study the origins of the
numerous species that visit India in the winter months. Although the
project has been running for less than 5 years, a gratifying amount
of new information has accumulated about bird movements, their
arthropod parasites, and other matters concerning their possible role
in the dissemination of viruses affecting man and animals. It is hoped
that this fruitful international co-operation received by the Society will
enable it to make a significant contribution to the knowledge of the
public health aspect of bird migration, in addition to procuring
factual data on a subject which until recently had received very little
serious attention from biologists in India.

‘5. The Society has been recognized by the University: of Bombay
as a _ guiding institution for post-graduate research in Field
Ornithology. Zoology students who have done their B.Sc. can now
obtain their M.Sc. degree through research under the recognized guide,
and it is hoped that the recognition will soon be stretched to cover
a doctoral degree as well. With its established ornithological
tradition, excellent research collection of birds, and its excellent
zoological library the Society feels adequately equipped to function
as the central school of ornithology in India. Given funds for award-
ing scholarships to promising zoology students there is no reason why
we should not attract the right type of persons from all over India

1909 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1)

and build up a cadre of qualified teachers and researchers in
ornithology. The lack of teachers is the chief factor that is retarding
nature study teaching and biological field research in India today,
especially vertebrate ecology-—also other branches of field natural
history as distinct from the study of systematics for which facilities
already exist, e.g. at the Zoological Survey of India with which the
Society maintains close liaison.

‘Thanks to scholarships awarded by the Council of Scientific
and Industrial Research, we have two post-graduate students working
at present on different facets of “The Role of Birds in our National
Economy”. The lack of jobs and opportunities for qualified
ornithologists in India makes it difficult to attract suitable zoology
students to this line of study without offering them reasonable induce-
ment in the way of stipends.

‘An application for such scholarships has been submitted
by the Society through the University of Bombay to the Central
Ministry of Education, which it is hoped will receive favourable
consideration.

‘In a country like ours which leans so heavily on agriculture
and forestry, proper research on the economic aspects of bird life is
of very great importance. The status of bird species, whether harmful
as crop destroyers or beneficial as enemies of pests, needs to be
scientifically assessed before any control measures can be undertaken.
This is a fact which has been little recognized in India, though in
the more advanced countries of the West such research is paying rich
dividends. But, unless we have trained and competent biologists
available for undertaking the meticulous type of field and laboratory
research which Economic Ornithology demands, we shall continue to
lag behind.

‘6. From pre-Independence days the Society has been seriously
concerned about the preservation of our vanishing wild life and has
played a leading part in the matter of Nature Conservation. The
Indian Board for Wild Life which is now the central quasi-governmental
advisory organization for the States on policy matters connected with
nature conservation—functioning under the Central Ministry for
Food and Agriculture—owes its formation to the spade work done in
earlier years by the Bombay Natural History Society and the dedicated
efforts of some of its far-sighted veteran British members, to whom a
grateful tribute is due. Unfortunately the Indian Board for Wild Life
as presently constituted and functioning is a less active and potent
body than the Society would wish. But it is a step in the right
direction, and we are exploring ways and means through the Planning

THE OPENING OF HORNBILL HOUSE : 13-3-1965 191

Commission for making it a more effective organization. The Society
has been largely responsible for framing, drafting and getting through
the Legislatures of undivided Bombay State, the Wild Animals and
Wild Birds Protection Act, 1951. This eclectic Act is based on some
of the best features embodied in similar acts in more advanced
countries of the world, rationally adapted to Indian conditions. It has
been recognized as a model of its kind and recommended by the
Indian Board for Wild Life for adoption by all the other States of the
Indian Union, with modifications to suit their local conditions.

‘This is an outline of a few of the activities and achievements
of the Society. With a permanent home which, thanks to the Govern-
ment of India and the Trustees of the Prince of Wales Museum, we
can at long last call our own, and with the additional facilities in the
way of accommodation, equipment, and opportunities—and, let us
hope, funds—the Society can look forward with confidence te a long
future of service to the country and to science. To achieve this will
be its continuing endeavour.’ | .

* * * *

Replying to Dr. Salim Ali, Mr. M. C. Chagla said that as Union
Minister for Education he would do all that he could to further the
cause of nature education in this country.

The Honorary Secretary proposed a vote of thanks.

After the meeting the visitors were shown round the rooms of
the Society where the publications and collections of the Society were
displayed.

Notes and News

Orchid Club of Bombay

We are very glad to welcome the Orchid Club of Bombay, which has
recently entered into the second year of its existence. It is surprising
that in a country whose rich stores of native orchids have been exploited
for years by enterprising foreigners there has so far been comparatively
little local interest. Started by a small group of enthusiasts, the club
seeks to create a love for and to spread the knowledge of orchids, to
help its members in procuring and caring for them, and to conserve the
orchids growing in our forests. To avoid the attachment of a prestige
value to-membership and to make it possible for all interested persons
to become members the subscription has been kept low. Enquiries for
further information should be addressed to: Mr. S. Abdulali,
Honorary Joint Secretary, Orchid Club of Bombay, ‘Sahara’, Quarry
Road, Devnar, Chembur, Bombay 71-AS.

Indian Association of Biological Sciences

A new Association, Indian Association of Biological Sciences, was
formed during the combined 5Ist-52nd session of the Indian Science
Congress Association at Calcutta in January 1965. A steering Com-
mittee consisting of Profs. B. R. Seshachar, T. S. Sadasivan (Secretary),
Sivatosh Mookerjee, and Drs. B. Mukerji, H. B. Tewari, B. S. Chauhan,
with Prof. P. Maheshwari as Chairman, was elected to formulate
the detailed scheme of the Association, the main aim of which
will be to create a common forum of Indian Biologists and to integrate
the research activities of biologists working in Medicine, Agriculture,
Veterinary, Botanical, and Zoological sciences, and the borderline
fields of Biochemistry, Biophysics, Biometrics, etc.

The annual subscription has been tentatively fixed at Rs. 10. Inten-
ding subscribers should send their first subscription to the Treasurer,
Dr. B.S. Chauhan, Zoological Survey of India, 34 Chittaranjan Avenue,
Calcutta-12. Other communications may be addressed to either Prof.
T. S. Sadasivan, Director, University Botany Laboratory, Madras-5 or
Prof. P. Maheshwari (Chairman), Professor and Head of the Department
of Botany, Delhi University.

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EDITORS: H. SANTAPAU, D. E. REUBEN, ZAFAR FUTEHALLY & J. C, DANIEL

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CONTENTS

THE YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING, Vanellus malabaricus (BODDAERT), A TROPI-
CAL DRY-SEASON NESTER. II. Additional data on breeding biology. By
S. D. Jayakar and H. Spurway

ON THR ‘ SUDANO-DECCANIAN " FLorat ELEMENT. By V. M. Meher-Homiji ..

ZOOGEOGRAPHY OF TERMITES OF ASSAM REGION, INDIA, WITH REMARKS ON
SPECIATION. By M. L. Roonwal and O. B. Chhotani

THE VEGETATION OF MANORI AND MADH ISLANDS IN Bombay. By Y. D.
Pradhan and Y. Satyanarayan a

COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FisHEs : FAMILY BOMOLOCHIDAE—3. By
N. Krishna Pillai

Tue Exotic FLORA OF KODAIKANAL. By K. M. Matthew, s.7. ..

A NOTE ON THE MANTIDS AND TETTIGONIDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY
NATURAL History Society. By N. T. Nadkerny

ON THE MARINE FAUNA OF THE GULF OF KutcH. Part [lI—Pelecypods. By
H. L. Kundu Rr es ae = aed

More CYANOPHYCEAE OF HOSHIARPUR: III. By P. C. Vasishta ..

MARINE TIMBER-BORING ORGANISMS OF THE INDIAN Coast. Report on a

Collection from the South-East Coast of India, with Notes on Distribu- .

tion in the Indo-Pacific Area. By N. Balakrishnan Nair

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES oe os ve
THE OPENING OF Hognsi_t House: 13-3-1965 pe

Notas aND Nzgws Sie aa <0

Osa ae

Journal of the

Bombay Natural History Society

Vol. 62, No. 2

Editors
H. SANTAPAU, s.J., D. EB. REUBEN,
ZAFAR FUTEHALLY, & J. C. DANIEL

AUGUST 1965

Rsuk5

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the
editors by observing the following instructions :

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered’ for publica-
tion to other journals or pericdicals, or have already been published
elsewhere, should not be submitted.

2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side = a
sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered.

3. All scientific names.to be printed in italics should be under- .
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letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and subspecific names
always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a person or a
place, e.g. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni or Streptopelia chinensis suratensis
or Dimeria blatteri.

4, Trinomials referring fo subspecies should only be used where
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titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books
not underlined (roman type), thus :

Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 (2) : 243-268. |

Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay.
Titles of papers should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting
the author’s name and year of publication, thus : (Banerji 1958).

9. Synopsis: Each scientific paper should be accompanied by 4
a concise, clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words. ©

10. Reprints: Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles
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packing. fu P|

EDITORS, —
Hornbill House, Journal of the Bombay Natural

Apollo Street, Fort,

Opp. Lion Gate, Pisery Society ‘
Bombay 1-BR. —

VOLUME 62, NO. 2—AUGUST 1965

Date of publication : 30-11-1965

CONTENTS

NORMAL AND ABNORMAL NESTS OF Eumenes emarginatus conoideus (GMELIN)
INCLUDING NOTES ON CREPISSAGE IN THIS AND OTHER MEMBERS OF THE
GENUS (VESPOIDEA, HYMENOPTERA). By S. D. Jayakar and H. Spurway.
(With three plates) si Si A fis .. 193

FURTHER CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BOTANY OF DANGS FOREST, SESE TS By
H. Santapau, s.sj. and G. L. Shah ct Mie a 76.201

ON THE MARINE FAUNA OF THE GULF OF KUTCH. Part I[I—Pelecypods
(continued). By H. L. Kundu. (With thirteen plates) Me: noel

Eco-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF THE INDIAN DESERT GERBILLE, Meriones
hurrianae (JERDON). III. Burrow temperature. By Ishwar Prakash, C.G.
. Kumbakarni, and A. Krishnan b oe an el eS]

OBSERVATIONS ON THE MATURATION AND SPAWNING OF THE BROWN POMERET,
Parastromateus niger (BLOCH) IN SAURASHTRA WATERS. By T.E. Sivapra-
kasam. (With a plate) a Ste nf nas

es
NOTES ON A COLONY OF THE WHISKERED TERN [Chlidonias hybrida (PALLAS)]
IN DELHI, WITH COMMENTS ON ITS BREEDING STATUS IN INDIA. By Julian
P. Donahue and Usha Ganguli. (With a map) 2, ay o4

ON A COLLECTION OF BRYOPHYTES MADE BY THE INDIAN CHO Oyu EXPEDITION,
1958. By B. M. Wadhwa and J. N. Vohra = te e259

GALL-INHABITING TUBULIFEROUS THYSANOPTERA—I. By T. N. Ananthakrishnan
and B. N. Ramamurthi. (With six plates) a a .. 266

FURTHER CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF PAVAGADH HILL NEAR BARODA,
GUJARAT. By G. L. Shah and J. A. Inamdar a 5 155279

ON A NEW SPECIES OF COMMENSAL PORCELLANID CRAB, Polyonyx loimicola
SP. NOV., FROM INDIA : (CRUSTACEA, ANOMURA, PORCELLANIDAE). By K.N.

Sankolli. (With two plates) Ne Jp ue ape PAs)
REVIEWS «

1. The Birds of the Palaearctic Fauna. Non-Passeriformes. (S.A.) .. 292

2. Seaside Plants of the World. (D. E.R.) a, se so 200

3. Mammals of the World, Vols. I and II. (J. C.D.) # 05

‘ ~4. Birds of Prey of the World. (H.A.) is - a1 296

5, Plant Embryology: A Symposium, (P, V. Bole) aes eo]

Si bare ‘ E C r "

INS aaaa ohm

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :

1. Partial albinism in Whitebellied Rat, Rattus niviventer Hodgson, from
Khasi Hills. (With one photograph). By A.S. Rajagopal and A.K. Mandal
(p. 299). 2. Behaviour of Lesser Whistling Teal [Dendrocygna javanica
(Horsfield) ] in Alipore Zoo, Calcutta. (With a plate). By Humayun Abdulali
(p. 300). 3. The Red Kite Milvus milvus (Linn.) in Orissa. By 8S. D. Jayakar
and H. Spurway (p. 301). 4. Occurrence of the Longtoed Stint Calidris sub-
minutus (Middendorff) in North Bihar. By P. V. George (p. 302). 5. The
Ashy Minivet [Pericrocotus divaricatus (Raffles) ] : An addition to the Indian
avifauna. By A. Navarro, S.J. (p. 303). 6. The Pallas’s Grasshopper Warb-
ler Locustella certhiola rubescens Blyth from South India. By P. V. George and
Isaac P. Mathew (p. 304). 7. Whiteheaded Yellow Wagtail [Motacilla’ flava
leucocephala (Przevalski) | near Delhi. By Peter F. R. Jackson (p. 304). 8
Notes on Indian Birds 4—On the validity of Zoothera citrina amadoni (Biswas).
By Humayun Abdulali (p. 305). 9. Recovery of ringed birds. By Editors
(p. 307). 10. Note on the seasonal prevalence of Culicoides schultzei
(Enderlein) : synonym Culicoides oxystoma Kieffer (Ceratopogonidae : Diptera).
(With a plate). By R. Reuben (p. 308). 11. Insect Fauna of Nepal : PartI.
Curculionidae. (With a map). By S.R.Wadhi and Baldev Parshad (p. 310).
12. Insect attacks on and disinfestation of some edible fungi in India. By
B. K. Varma and S. P. Gurwara (p. 313). 13. Collecting moths by a mercury
vapour lamp in the Surat Dangs, Gujarat State: An explanation. By Editors
(p. 315). 14. On the occurrence of the tube-worm Loimia medusa (Savigny)
in Bombay waters and its commensalism with a porcellanid crab. (With a
plate). By K. N.Sankolli and Shakuntala Shenoy (p. 316). 15. A new species
of Panicum coloratum Linn. complex. (With two plates). By Prem P. Jauhar
and A. B. Joshi (p. 320). 16. Laurentia longiflora (Linn.) Endl. in Pondicherry.
By G. Thanikaimoni (p. 323). 17. Solanum khasianum var. chatterjeeanum
SenGupta: The possibility of a steroid hormone industry in India. (With a
plate). By P.C. Maity (p. 324). 18. On the occurrence of Plantago psyllium
Linn. in Gujarat. (With four text-figures). By J.G. Chohan and G.L. Shah
(p. 327). 19. Jatropha tanjorensis Ellis et Saroja: A new record for eastern
India. By S.S. R. Bennet (p. 329). 20. Notes on the vegetation of Wadi
as-Sahba’, eastern Arabia. (With a diagram and two plates). By J. Mandaville

(p. 330), 21. A note on the identification of some unrecorded desert plants
from Kutch. By M. M. Bhandari (p. 332).

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR
1964-65

. 336

SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS BY THE HONORARY SECRETARY FOR THE PERIOD
JANUARY TO APRIL 1965... si exe enh |
STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY snus San
MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING ae «308

CERTIFICATE OF REGISTRATION AND MEMORANDUM OF ASSOCIATION OF THE
BoMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY Ss #4 oat SOM

RULES AND REGULATIONS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY AS
AMENDED UP TO 1965 ae oid a ee sO
NOTES AND NEWS _.. oe eee Oe as “ome

GLEANINGS we eat ie si a oe. Bae

‘SI9UIOD Pepunol YIM orenbs “wo 1g-T St UIOD OY] “[] eAT}TUgep oy} pue unZeq 4se] oy} “JYsU aa
OY} OF [[90 SJ] VATJIOGe Ue HoT OF [JA9 ‘| ST [[90 [eI}UAD “UOT}JeSop Ja}ye Shep Ef EQg/TX/RT “TL Seutsofrsdd *d sauawmny Jo ISON

I aLVIg ‘90S “ISIH “LVN AvaWog ‘Nuaof

JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL

Hist Occ y., SOCTE TY

1965 AUGUST Vol. 62 No. 2

Normal and abnormal Nests of
Eumenes emarginatus conoideus
(Gmelin) including Notes on
Crépissage in this and other
members of the genus
(Vespoidea, Hymenoptera)

BY
S. D. JAYAKAR AND H. SPURWAY

Genetics and Biometry Laboratory, Government of Orissa,
, Bhubaneswar

(With three plates)

Eumenes emarginatus conoideus (Gmelin) is a fairly common
domestic wasp in Bhubaneswar, and all nests here described of this and
other species were built indoors, or in roofed-over parts of recent
concrete buildings. |

Maxwell-Lefroy (1909) and Dutt (1913), who were colleagues and
worked on the same material, have written on the biology of E. e.
conoideus which, following Bingham (1897), they called E. conica
Fabricius. Iwata (1964), in his recent notes on this subspecies from
Thailand, quotes and confirms these authors that its maximum nest-
size is 10 cells. ;

The Table on p. 199 gives data concerning the 12 wasps of this
subspecies which we have observed between 23/viii/62 and 9/x/64.
Wasps are labelled with c foliowed by a so-called Arabic (or inter-
national) numeral; cells within a nest with Roman numerals, Two
females (c6 and cl0) were observed during the process of deserting one
aggregate of cells and selecting the site for a second, which is designated
by the same wasp number followed by a prime (e.g. 6’). Considering
wasps c2—cl2 (cl being interrupted) and the thirteen nests they
constructed, only three (5, 6, and 10) were completed in the sense thas,

194 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

not only was no cell left unfinished or open, but at least the later cells
were covered with the granular daubing to which we wish to restrict
Roubaud’s (1916) term crépissage [Jayakar & Spurway, in press, to which
we refer for elaboration of our references to E. campaniformis esuriens
(Fabricius)]. The mothers of two of these nests confirmed their com-
pleteness by immediately selecting a second site and beginning a new
construct within 24 hours of finishing the crépissage.

Nest 9 was built on a white-washed wall and round the edge of a
cylindrical wooden base for a latch-type door stop. This was 7.5 cm. in
diameter, and the first 12 cells of the nest extended upwards round half
of its circumference. The remaining 9 were laid down in 3 rows entirely
on the wall above the wooden fitment. The giant first nest of c10 is
shown in Plate II. Cells I to XLI were very standardized in size and
shape, though wasps of both sexes emerged from them. They were
built one above the other on a wooden shutter in the angle between
convex edges of the frame and the flat panel. The mother was marked
with paint during the construction of cell XX. The remaining five cells,
which were unusually long and narrow, were fitted in somewhat
irregularly in the upper corner. The first 3 cells of nest 11 were also
partly on a wooden fitment and partly on the vertical wall to which it
was attached. The remaining 26 were built entirely on the surface of
the wall above it, the mother being painted during the construction of
cell XV. These three nests show that a maximum of ten cells is not
characteristic of the species at least in this part of its range.

We think it coincidental that both the second nests 6’ and 10’ were
the only ones we found built on cane. The cane on which 6’ was built.
was about 14 mm. in diameter, so 6’ like 6 consisted of the half pots cha-
racteristic of the species. However 10’ was built on a partially-burnt area
of a waste paper basket woven of vertically round canes 5 mm. in
diameter and horizontal ribbons. The first cell of 10’ was a complete
pot. This was begun, as is usual, as a pair of brackets which were
smoothed out and. thickened inwards until they were joined to make a
floor which was not quite complete, but its outer surface was moulded
into the basket work [compare Olberg 1959, p. 122, upper left, for similar
work by E. pedunculatus (Panzer)]. Thus, one marked individual (c10)
was seen to construct both complete and half pots, and E. e. conoideus
must be added to the list of species which are known to have this
architectural versatility. The five later pots had~ similar floors where
these were supported by the basket-work, but they were incomplete as
they were built overlapping at least one earlier cell. Wasp cl0 was also
seen to twice revisit her first nest after she had built on her second site.
The first of these visits was on 21/Vviii, 5 hours after she deserted nest
10, while she was building cell 10’ II, but the second was five days later
@6/viii). On this second visit, however, she did not land, but only

First nest of Eumenes emarginatus conoideus 10.
26/viii/64; after emergence had begun.

(Photo: Dr. J. M. Poehiman)

PLATE III

JouRN. BoMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc.

Nest of Eumenes emarginatus conoideus 12. 13/ix/64. No further loads
were brought. The nest is 10-11 cm. high.

(Photo : Prof. T. A. Davis)

NORMAL AND ABNORMAL NESTS OF E. E. CONOIDEUS 195

hovered over nest 10 before flying straight to nest 10’ on what was
apparently an inspection visit first thing in the morning. As this was
the last day she was seen, this visit to nest 10 might have been patho-
logical, e.g. due to senility. On nest 10’, she put down several daubs
before completing cell 10’ VI which had been left unfinished due to
sudden rain the night before. She was not seen after the oviposition
made on the completion of 10’ VI. The presence of the egg was
checked. A wasp visited nest c7 on 1 /iv which, in the light of the beha-
viour of the marked cl0, was probably the mother. Iwata’s (1964,
p. 334) observation that a wasp was ‘ plastering a mud coat over the
entire surface’ of a 3-celled nest in which all the larvae were already
pre-pupae in cocoons suggests that E. e. conoideus wasps may sometimes
even return to work on their earlier nests.

Female c10 thus laid 52 (46+6) eggs to our certain knowledge, for
there is no suggestion of any pathological behaviour concerning the
exceptionally rapid construction of her first nest. Dr. Iwata (personal
communication) tells us that this may be the record number laid by a
solitary wasp, and suggests that tropical species have a greater fecundity
than their better known temperate relatives (Iwata 1942). If this is
confirmed, these nest-building wasps thus differ from birds in whom
clutch size increases with latitude. |

The range of work speeds was striking. Though most wasps averaged
about one cell built, laid in, provisioned, and sealed a day, c10 rose to
an average of 1°84 and c6 sank to 0°42, but for both wasps the excepti-
onal speeds were for only one of the two constructs which we saw them
build. Wasp c6, when building nest 6’, frequently missed a day without
bringing a load, and once two days. These absences always left a cell
half built, or incompletely provisioned. They were not due to inclement
weather and during them she did not return to her already crépissaged
first nest.

Crépissage has not, to our knowledge, previously been described in
detail for EZ. e. conoideus. This, in wasps of the genus Eumenes, consists
of finishing off a group of cells by completely covering them with
discretely applied lumps of mud so that the construct is left with the
appearance of a minute recent mountain chain, whose subsidiary ranges
of peaks extend from the cells to the substrate on which these were ~
constructed. As the loads of mud are not worked together as they are
put down, the texture remains granular. Though such a structure must be
_ porous, we have once seen a conoideus build a vault under her crépissage
as is usually done by E. c. esuriens. Iwata (1942) considers these vaults
to be air-spaces which buffer the cells against temperature changes. We
consider that they may also provide protection fiom parasites such as
chrysid cuckoo-wasps who bore into the walls of sealed cells to oviposit.
_ We have seen both conoideus and esuriens leave the earlier cells naked in

196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

large nests, e.g. cl0 (PlateII). Finally, the crépissage of esuriens is made
exclusively with the same mud as that with which she builds her cells, in
this region red and lateritic. However, all the crépissages we have seen
by conoideus have been finished-off with some loads of sandy soil so laid
down on the ridges, that, by simulating snow, they increase the resem-
blance to mountains. In the only crépissage we have seen constructed
by an E. pyriformis pyriformis (Fabricius), ash and cinder dust was used
for this finishing (Plate 1). :

Returning to the Table on p. 199 we note that though several wasps
built unexpectedly large nests, two, c2 and c4, were deserted before even
one cell was properly sealed, and two more nests (c3 and c8) were
small. Two of these nests also involved disturbances of the normal
sequence. Wasp c4, who provisioned but did not seal the only cell she
built, put down five loads constructing five abortive brackets at four
other sites before adding to the single bracket she had made on the site
that had been her first choice. Such intention movements before
beginning nest building, which we have also seen made by E. c. esuriens,
may be no more pathological than they are in birds, but that c3 provision-
ed and sealed her cell I without oviposition is surely a miscarrying of
the sequence. |

More bizarre is the history of nest 12 (Plate III). This nest was
built on the frame and jamb of a window above the stop of the shutter —
that was the pair of that on which nest 10 had been started exactly six
weeks before. It is possible, as the species is not very common, and
perhaps likely, that cl2 was the daughter of cl10. One abortive bracket
of probably two loads was made outside the area photographed. Cell I-
was small and was left without a lid or an egg overnight. A lip is not
an essential feature of a conoideus pot and was often omitted by c10.
However, it was possible that for wasp 12 cell I was unfinished as she
did not lay in it. Next morning she first confirmed this interpretation
by constructing a lip, however she immediately confounded it by con-
tinuing working, putting at least 5 loads on this lip (she was not watched
continuously) enlarging it into a little tube which she reinforced on the |
outside. She spread out the end of this funnel into a lip and |
sealed the opening with a little knob. Thus cell I had both an
abnormal form and was sealed empty. She immediately built cell
II, above cell I, continued work on the lip until it was a funnel, and then
spent four minutes approaching her abdomen to its mouth and removing
it without actually inserting it. It was then realized that she had
previously made similar but more trivial abortive egg-laying movements
while building both funnels. Her movements suggested that she had
not received the proper stimulus to oviposit, not that she was egg-bound.
Her behaviour is in contrast to that we have described in an E. c. esuriens |
individual, e5, who on several occasions first thing in the morning during |

NORMAL AND. ABNORMAL NESTS OF E.. E. CONOIDEUS 197

provisioning laid an egg, These took a long time and sometimes seemed
to necessitate a struggle. These exceptional ovipositions were, we think,
stimulated by some change in the egg laid on the completion of the
cell. Wasp cl2 extended the mouth of II into a tube 1:7 cm. long
which curved downwards and without sealing this she began cell III.
She worked on this and the tube alternately until the cell was complete
and fairly normal, and the tube 2°5-cm. long, and the awkward way it
curved downwards resembled pictures of the temporary flight tubes
constructed by Oplomerus spinipes (Linnaeus) [compare Plate II] -with
Olberg (1959) pp. 140-149}.

Next day, cl2 pathologically added to lip III, and built IV including
excrescences which were later added to and became the first two brackets
of V. This may not itself be pathological but merely a consequence of
the cells being distorted in shape ; cl0, when fitting the later cells of her
geeat nest into the corner of the shutter, often left well-worked ridges
which she later extended, often with gross modification, to become the
brackets of the next, or even later, cells. cl2 was next etherised and
painted, and did not return that day. Next morning she thickened lip
IV and continued building V above it. Again she made what later was
used as the first bracket of VI, but succeeded in ovipositing in V.

Though this, her first egg, was present at 13°05, she did not bring
her first prey until next day when she inserted the bluish green semi-
looper Noctuid iarvae which were the prey used, apparently exclusively,
by c10, cll, and cl2. Unfortunately-she put larvae into the egg-less
cells III and IV as ‘Well as in V, and then sealed the egg-less IV only.
She then built VI so that its walls enclosed the open mouth of V, from
_ which a prey walked out into the unfinished cell and was collected by
the observers.

Next day, she apparently pushed another larva back into V before
it had completely escaped, and continued cell VI, finished it, and
oviposited. The cavities of cells V and VI were thus continuous. She
provisioned cell VI apparently normally, sealed it and built cell VII.
She then drew her abdomen up to the lip and relaxed it repeatedly for
over aminute. After this frustration, she extended the lip for 1 cm.
without curving it in any way. The mud work of this tube was excep-
tionally coarse and the loads were extended on to the cell walls of VII.
She immediately laid an egg in the mouth of tube VII, doubtless as deep
as she could reach with her abdomen.

Not till next day did she try to insert prey into this tube. This prey
both dislodged the egg and itself lodged in the tube.

She sealed VII and built VIII, again above it, oviposited, and
provisioned. She may have had trouble with her prey and was once
seen standing on her hind legs on tube II while maxillating a cater-
pillar. There. is a distinct suggestion in our notes that either cl2 did

19§ JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 62 (2)

not render her prey as passive as other wasps, or more likely they could
not be inserted so deftly into these cells which were more abnormally
shaped than has been emphasised, but which is well shown in Piate III.
Cell VIII was sealed by the end of the day. Next day she built IX
above VIII, laid, and put in at least one larva. A chrysid was then
seen on the nest. cl2 then put down a few daubs and began crépissage.
She also dropped at least one load, and took away another not putting
it down. A chrysid made another visit, and then two more loads were
added to the crépissage. Next morning she made at least two loadless
visits, on the second of which she was followed by a sarcophagine fly
who, when the wasp had left, oviposited or larviposited in IX. A
chrysid again arrived, four minutes later cl2 arrived, and immediately
left the nest, and for the next 16 minutes hovered over similar fur-
nishings on the verandah, never returning to the construct. She thus
made a definitive desertion due to parasitization. Next morning ants
removed the prey from III and a spider was captured carrying an
apodous larva, perhaps of one of the parasites. A wasp emerged,
apparently from VII, not from VIII which was the only normally filled
cell. As has been noted, all the cells were contorted in shape.

Roubaud (1916) had discussed such dysgenic sequences of behaviour
in the African E. tinctor Christ, and interpreted them as responses to
the frustrations due to suboptimal microclimates, either seasonal or
geographical. We have discussed elsewhere Roubaud’s examples and
those we have observed in E. c. esuriens. Such behaviour seems much
more frequent in conoideus than in the commoner esuriens in this
locality ; however, we have yet to see one female esuriens making two |
constructs or any containing more than thirteen cells. This supports |
Roubaud by suggesting that conoideus is in some way at the edge of its
ecological range, where, as would be expected on some theories of
population expansion, some individuals, perhaps genetically excep-
tional, do exceptionally well, while other individuals are exposed to
strains to which they are unequal.

However, cl2 seemed to suffer from an internal insufficiency so that,
»though not egg-bound, she only made low intensity attempts to oviposit
at the appropriate time in the cycle. Whether or not this was in some
way due to the environment (e.g. through nutritional inadequacy) is
irrelevant to the demonstrations it gave of the role played by such actions
ina cycle of instinctive activities. Oviposition, perhaps because the
wasp reacts to the presence of an egg, or because the action of laying
provides Sherringtonian proprioceptive consummatory stimuli, inhibits
one phase of the cycle (in this example mud working), and therefore
permits the initiation of the next phase (in this example provisioning).
However, the behaviour of c3 did not conform to this Lorenz-Tinbergen
instinct theory analysis. After she had failed to lay in cell I she pro-

199

NORMAL AND ABNORMAL NESTS OF E. E. CONOIDEUS

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200 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

visioned and sealed the cell normally. The oviposition was simply

dropped from this cycle, and the absence of either the egg or the |

proprioception of ovulation provoked no visible reaction in the wasp.
The entirely different consequences of the two failures perhaps lie in
differences in the nervous processes which produced them. ”

The other abnormal actions of cl12 seemed secondary to this failure
to cease building and oviposit, and were as would be expected if her
behaviour was instinctive. It was not surprising that all open cells
stimulated, or released, the insertion of prey, and that she had no
capacity to choose between several, because only in exceptional circum-
stances will more than the relevant one be present. Similarly, after the
consummatory stimulus of sealing one cell had released the building of
walls, is it surprising that an open cell mouth in the middle of the new

cell floor provided no releasers to inhibit this building or to alter the .

form it took, even though the wasp reacted to this open mouth when
prey escaped from it? As has so frequently been pointed out, the
instinctive nature of an activity reveals itself in situations where the
activity miscarries.

Wasp cl12 seemed to be recovering from her primary disabilities when
parasitization stimulated her to desert this largely abortive nest, exactly
as it stimulates normal nests to be deserted by normal E. c. esuriens.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are very grateful to Dr. J. M. Poehlman and Prof. T. A. Davis
for photographing our nests, and to Dr. J. van der Vecht for identifying
specimens.

SUMMARY

Thirteen nests of Eumenes emarginatus conoideus are described.
Three were larger than any previously recorded. One was defor-
med, apparently primarily because of a failure in the female’s
egg-laying behaviour.
compared with that of E. p. pyriformis and E. campaniformis esuriens.

REFERENCES

The crépissage of this species is described, and |

BINGHAM, C. T. (1897) : Fauna of
British India. Hymenoptera 1. Taylor
and Francis, London.

Dutt, G. R. (1913) : Life Histories of
Indian Insects (Hymenoptera). Mem.
Dept. Agri. India, Entomological series,
4: 183-267.

IwaTaA, K. (1942) : Comparative Stu-
dies on the Habits of Solitary Wasps.
Tenthredo 4: 1-146.

(1964) : Bionomics of non-
social wasps in Thailand. Nature and
Life in S. E. Asia 3: 323-383.

JAYAKAR, S. D.; & SpPuURWAY, H.

(In the press) : The nesting activities of

—

the Vespoid potter wasp Eumenes cam-
paniformis esuriens (Fabr.) compared
with the ecologically similar Sphecoid
Sceliphron madraspatanum (Fabr.).: J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

MAXWELL-LEFROY, H. (1909) : Indian
Insect Life. Thacker, Spink & Co.,
Calcutta.

OLBERG, G. (1959) : Das Verhalten der
Solitaren Wespen Mitteleuropas Deut-
scher Verlag der Wissenschaften, Berlin.

Rouspaub, E. (1916) : Recherches
biologiques sur les guépes solitaires et
sociales d’Afrique. Ann. Sc. Nat. Zool.
(10), 1: 1-160. ee

~ Further Contributions to the Botany
of Dangs Forest, Gujarat

H. SANTAPAU, S.J. AND G. L. SHAH, Ph. D.
St. Xavier’s College, Bombay

ABSTRACT

An account of additional plants, collected from Dangs Forest, is
given in this paper.

INTRODUCTION

The information about the flora of Dangs Forest so far is very
meagre. Cooke (FL. PRES. BOM. 1901-08) occasionally cites locality
‘Dangs’. The senior author (J. Gujerat Res. Soc., 1954, 16 : 285-320
and 1955, 17: 1-59) published an account of flowering plants occurring
in Dangs Forest, based on collections made at Waghai and Unai. In
Blatter Herbarium, there are several sheets of plants collected from
various parts of the Dangs, e.g. Sunda, Ahwa, Subir, Kasarbari, by the
senior author and his students, the junior author being one of them. In
this paper an additional list of plants, not enumerated earlier, is given.
In the list we have also included some plants when our observations for
those plants are different from the ones published earlier.

The general pattern of vegetation in the forests at Ahwa, Sunda,
Kasarbari, etc. is almost the same as that described for Waghai and
Unai by the senior author ; hence no account is given here.

The names of the plants are mostly the same as those given in
Cooke’s FLORA; where the name is changed, we give first the name
which, according to us, is correct. The name in Cooke’s FLORA, then,
is given as synonym. The plants marked with asterisks are not men-
_ tioned by Cooke. |

ENUMERATION OF PLANTS

DILLENIACEAE
*

1. Dillenia pentagyna Roxb.
Occasional in the forests at Ahwa and Sunda, Noted on 20.xii.63.

202. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

‘TAMARICACEAE

2. Tamarix ericoides Rottl.

Very common and abundant, gregarious, in river beds. Flowers
bright pink to purple. Sunda: Shah 10685.

MALVACEAE

3. Hibiscus furcatus Willd.
Occasional in the undergrowth of forests, in fruit. Sunda: Shah

10709 ; Kasarbari : Shah 10698-99.
4. Hibiscus lobatus (Murr.) O. Kuntze (Hibiscus solandra L’ Her.)

Occasional in shade in open forests, in fruit. Sunda: Shah 10708 ;
Pimpri : Asrana 3106.

5. Hibiscus vitifolius Linn.
Rare ; flowers sulphur-yellow. Subir: Asrana 2831, 2840; Waghai:
Asrana 3017.

6. Sida glutinosa Cav.
Fairly common in open forests. Flowers yellow. Unai: Santapau

17271 ; Ahwa: Shah 10679 ; Sunda: Shah 10696; Waghai: Santapau —

19673; Dangs: Asrana 5431.

TILIACEAE

7. Grewia abutilifolia Vent.
Rare, in fruit. Sunda: Shah 10711; Subir: Asrana 2923.

LINACEAE

8, Linum mysorense Heyne
Common and abundant in Sit grass fields. Flowers yellow.
Ahwa : Santapau : 19397-99 ; Asrana 2941 ; Subir : Asrana 3162.

MALPIGHIACEAE

9. Aspidopteris cordata (Heyne) Juss.
An extensive climber, in flower, abundant in the forest at Susurda,
about 10 miles from Waghai. Santapau 19729-30.

PAPILIONACEAE

10. Desmodium heterocarpum ee DC. [Desmodium polycarpum
(Poir.) DC. } |
Common in shade along paths in the forest. For the nomenclature
of this plant, see Shahin J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 1963, 60(1) : 296,
Waghai : Santapau 19650 ; Panthaki 1744; Asrana 3036.

FURTHER CONTRIBUTIONS TO BOTANY OF DANGS FOREST 203

11. Desmodium triangulare var. congestum (Prain) Santapau (Desmodium
cephalotes Wall. var. congestum Prain)

Fairly common, at times gregarious, along paths in the forest and
river banks. Flowers creamy white. Waghai: Santapau 19323; Pimpri:
Santapau 19925; Sunda: Shah 10742.

12. Desmodium triquetrum (L.) DC.

A fairly distinct species on account of the winged petioles. Flowers
bright purple. Waghai: Santapau 19966 ; Panthaki 1717, 2332 ; Asrana
2994. :

13. Desmodium velutinum (Willd.) DC. [Desmodium latifolium (Roxb,
ex Ker) DC.] ,

Occasional in the undergrowth of the forest. For the nomenclature
of this plant we have followed Schubert in J. Arn. Arbor., 1963, 44 : 222.
Sunda: Shah 10707.

14. Moghania macrophylla (Willd.) O. Kuntze (Flemingia congesta
Roxb.) ,

In Blatter Herbarium there is one sheet of this species (No. 27837)
without collector’s name, collected from Waghai in February Me
*15. Moghania praecox var. robusta Muk. ’

Fairly common on the edges of the forest. Flowers creamy yellow,
| tinged with red. Waghai: Panthaki 2511-13; Pimpri: Asrana 5394.
*16. Uraria rufescens (DC.) Schindler

i Common in the undergrowth of the dense forests, Flowers bright
purple. Pods typical. Waghai: Santapau 19741 ; Panthaki 1727 ; Asrana
2995 ; Unai: Santapau 17339; Ahwa: Shah 10676.

CAESALPINIACEAE

17. Cassia obtusifolia Linn.

Rare, in shade along paths in thin forest. Kasarbari: Shah
10692.

LYTHRACEAE

18. Rotala indica (Willd.) Koehne (Ammannia peploides Spt.)
Rare, in the cultivated fields. Ahwa: Shah 10712.

CUCURBITACEAE

19, Trichosanthes bracteata (Lamk.) Voigt (Trichosanthes palmata
Roxb.)

A common twiner on edges of the forest. Waghai: Santapau 19927.

204 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62-(2)--— .

RUBIACEAE

20. Anotis rheedei Hook. f.

Common among grasses and in shade along paths in the forest.
Flowers minute, white. Waghai: Santapau 19160; Asrana 3004;
Ahwa: Santapau 19351-52 ; Asrana 2811. |
21. Wendlandia exserta DC.

Common, scattered or gregarious, along river banks; also found on
the edges of forest along Ahwa Ghat Road. Flowers white or pale blue.
Sunda: Shah 10717-18.

COMPOSITAE

22. Acanthospermum hispidum DC.
An occasional weed along roadsides at Ahwa and Waghai. Ahwa:
Saldana 6788.

23. Adenostemma lavenia (Linn.) O. Kuntze (Adenostemma viscosum
Forst.)
Occasional in patches near watercourses, in river bed. Waghai: Shah
10762-63 ; Asrana 5263.
24. vliated eriantha DC.
Common along roadsides at Ahwa ; seen on 20.xii1.63.

25. Blumea lacera (Burm. f.) DC.

Abundant along railway lines and in open forest. Flowers yellow.
Unai: Santapau 17362 ; Waghai: Santapau 18441.

26. Blumea membranacea DC.

Occasional in stony ground in dry beds of streams at Ahwa; seen
on 20.x11.63.
27. Blumea obliqua (Linn.) Druce (Blumea amplectens DC.)

Rare, in moist places at Waghai. Flowers yellow.

28. Sclerocarpus africanus Jacq.

Fairly common in hedges along roadsides and on edges of forest.
Flowers yellow. Waghai: Asrana 2230.
29. Vernonia divergens Edg.

Dangs : Asrana 5491.

PRIMULACEAE

30. Anagallis pumila Sw. (Centunculus tenellus Duby)

Fairly common on earth bunds and in cultivated fields. Flowers
white, often tinged with pink. Ahwa: Shah 10765. rh nea Ae

FURTHER CONTRIBUTIONS TO BOTANY OF DANGS FOREST 205
APOCYNACEAE

31. Wrightia tomentosa R&S:

A common tree in the forests at Ahwa, Sunda, and Kasarbari; seen
only in fruit. Kasarbari: Shah 10682 ; Waghai: Jrani 149.

ASCLEPIADACEAE
32. Holostemma annulare (Roxb.) K. Schum. (Holostemma rheedianum
Cooke, non Spr.)

An occasional twiner, in fruit. Ahwa: Shah 10767 ; Pimpri: San-
tapau 19313 ; Waghai: Jrani 271.
33. Marsdenia tenacissima (Roxb.) Moon

Fairly common in the undergrowth. Flowers and fruits not seen.
Waghai: Santapau 19257 ; Irani 153.
34. Telosma pallida (Roxb.) Craib (Pergularia pallida W. & A.)

Only one plant seen in hedge near the office of the Forest Depart-
ment. Waghai: Jrani 148.

GENTIANACEAE
35. Exacum pumilum Griseb.
Common in low grasses at Ahwa. Flowers deep blue or bluish
purple. Ahwa: Santapau 19400.
36. Canscora concanensis Clke.

. Abundant in open ground among grasses on rocky slopes along paths
in the forest. Flowers rose-coloured. Subir: Santapau 19418; Asrana
2817 ; Waghai : Santapau 19263 ; Ahwa: Santapau 19300.

| CONVOLVULACEAE
37, Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.
Dangs : Asrana 5409.

38. Ipomoea arachnosperma Welw. (/pomoea pilosa Sw.)

Common and abundant. Flowers deep pink. For nomenclature see

Verdcourt in 1963, FL. TROP. EAST AFR. (Convolvulaceae) p. 112. Waghai:
Asrana 3060.

39. Ipomoea hederifolia Linn. (Quamoclit coccinea auct. non Moench.)

An occasional twiner on hedges near Waghai. Flowers deep red.
Noted on 24.xii.63. For nomenclature see Verdcourt in 1963, FL.
TROP, EAST AFR., p. 132. .

206. JOURNAL, BOMBAY WATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

40. Ipomoea sinensis (Desr.) Choisy [Jpomoea calycina (Roxb.) Clke.]

A rare plant, in hedges near Unai. Flowers creamy white. For
nomenclature see Verdcourt in 1963, FL. TROP. EAST AFR., p. 101.

*41, Ipomoea triloba Linn.
An occasional twiner on hedges near Waghai. Flowers bright pink
or rose-coloured ; corolla about 18 mm. long. Noted on 24.xii.63.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

42, Kickxia ramosissima (Wall.) Janch. (Linaria ramosissima Wall.)
Dangs: Asrana/5236, 5464.

ACANTHACEAE

43. Barleria cristata Linn.
Dangs : Asrana 5471.

44. Carvia callosa (Wall.) Bremek. (Strobilanthes callosus Wall.)
Occasionally in large patches along paths in the forest. Ahwa-Subir
road: Asrana 3214.

45. Dipteracanthus patulus (Jacq.) Nees (Ruellia patula Jacq.)
A few patches seen in the river beds. Flowers pale purple. Sunda:
Shah 10716-17, 10739-40.

46. Justicia gendarussa Burm. f.
Cultivated as a border plant at Ahwa.

47, Justicia procumbens Linn.
Dangs : Asrana 2847.

48. Thelepaepale ixiocephala (Benth.) Bremek. (Strobilanthes ixioce-
phalus Benth.)
Dangs: Asrana 5441.

LABIATAE

49, Anisomeles heyneana Benth.

Occasional in the undergrowth of forests and on the edges of cleared
forests. Flowers creamy white, tinged with pink. Waghai: Santapau
19991 ; also seen at Sunda on 22.xii.63.

50. Leucas martinicensis R. Br.
About 1:5 m. tall among grasses, near river at Pimpri. Pimpri:
Santapau 20156-9 ; Subir: Asrana 3198.

FURTHER CONTRIBUTIONS TO BOTANY OF DANGS FOREST 207
AMARANTHACEAE /

*51. Achyranthes aspera Linn. var. porphyristachya Hook. f.
Common, in loose patches, in the undergrowth of thin forests.
Ahwa: Shah 10675.
*52. Alternanthera ficoidea R. Br.
An occasional weed along roadsides. Waghai: Shah 10760.

EUPHORBIACEAE

53. Euphorbia fusiformis Buch.-Ham. (Euphorbia acaulis Roxb.)
A few plants, in leaf, seen in the undergrowth of bamboo forest
along river bank near Sunda on 22.x11.63.
54. Euphorbia bombaiensis Santapau (Euphorbia microphylla Heyne ex
Roth, non Lamk.)
Common in cultivated fields. Dangs: Asrana 5423.

*55. Euphorbia perbracteata Gage.

Very abundant in cultivated fields mixed with Chrozophora sp. ;
bracts perfoliate; glands of involucre without petaloid limb; gland
half-moon shaped but serrate or fimbriate ; whole plant pale yellowish
green. For the correct identity of the plant see Santapau in Bull. bot.
Soc. Beng., 1954, 8(1); 23. Unai: Santapau: 18160-18164.

*56, Euphorbia prostrata Ait.
Common in cultivated fields. Subir: Asrana 2903.

URTICACEAE

57. Girardinia zeylanica Decne.

Occasional in dry beds of rivers and streamlets in the forests at Ahwa.
Noted on 20.xii.63.

HYDROCHARITACEAE

58. Ottelia alismoides Pers.
Fairly common in ditches. Flowers white. Ahwa: Shah 10681A.

MUSACEAE

59. Ensete superbum (Roxb.) Cheesman (Musa superba Roxb.)

This is the wild banana; common in rock crevices on hill slopes
along river banks near Sunda.

208 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 62 Q)

CYPERACEAE

60. Cyperus difformis Linn.
Occasional in cultivated fields. Ahwa: Shah 10756.

61. Scirpus supinus Linn.
Occasional in cultivated fields. Ahwa: Shah 10745.

GRAMINEAE
62. Arthraxon lancifolius (Trin.) Hochst. (Arthraxon microphyllus
Hochst. )
Waghai: Asrana 3043.

63. Arundinella metzii Hochst.
Dangs: Asrana 5448.

*64, Capillipedium huegelii (Hack.) Stapf |
A large clump seen in the forest undergrowth. Ahwa-Pimpri Road :
Asrana 3088.

65. Arundinella pumila (Hochst.) Steud. (Arundinella tenella Nees ex
Steud.) .
Common, gregarious, in drying pools by the roadsides. Waghai:
Santapau 19980-1; Pimpri: Asrana 3088. |
*66. Chrysopogon polyphyllus (Hack.) Blatter & McCann

Occasional along river banks. A very striking plant because of the
golden yellow spikelets. Pimpri: Santapau 20123; Sunda: Shah
10714, 10731.

*67, Cymbopogon martinii (Roxb.) Wats. ‘
Frequently found in waste places. Subir: Asrana 3185. |

68. Echinochloa colonum (Linn.) Link (Panicum colonum Linn.) — . |
Common in moist places. Pimpri: Asrana 2777.

*69, Echinochloa crusgalli (Linn.) P. Beauv.
Common in moist places. Pimpri: Asrana 2779.

60. Echinochloa frumentacea Link (Panicum stagninum var. Jrument-
aceum Cooke)
Cultivated, said to yield inferior sort of grain ; locally known as
basti. Along Nasik Road: Santapay 19240-1, 19519.

71. Eragrostis diarrhena (Schuit. /) Steud. (Eragrostis interrupta auct.
non Beauv. var. koenigii Stapf)
Common in stony places in river beds and in cultivated fields
Unai: Santapau 17006 ; Waghai: Asrana 3328; Dangs: Asrana 5459, |

FURTHER CONTRIBUTIONS TO BOTANY OF DANGS FOREST 209

72. Eragrostis japonica (Thunb.) Trin.
Common, occasionally in dense clumps, in moist places in river

beds and cultivated fields. Unai: Santapau 20196; Ahwa: Shah
10746, 10757-58 ; Subir: Asrana 3174.

*73, Eragrostis pilosa (Linn.) P. Beauv.
In small clumps on river beds; rare. Pimpri: Santapau 20136.

74. Eragrostis tenella (Linn.) P. Beauv. [Fragrostis tenella var. plumosa
; (Retz.) Stapf]

Common. Pimpri: Asrana 3089.

75. Melanocenchris jacquemontii J. & S. (Gracilea royleana Hook. f.)

Erect grass in small tufts; common on flat rocks. Ahwa: Asrana
2812 ; Pimpri: Asrana 2843.

76. WHackelochloa granularis (Linn. f.) O. Kuntze (Manisuris granularis
Linn.)

Pimpri: Asrana 2778.

77. Ischaemum diplopogon Hook. f.

Common on rocks on hilly slopes. Waghai: Santapau 19688 ;
Ahwa: Asrana 3552.

78. Ischaemum goebelii Hack. (/schaemum aristatum auct. non Linn.)
Found along railway lines. Waghai: Fernandez 2213.

79. Ischaemum rugosum Salisb.

Rare in the undergrowth. Along Nasik Road: Santapau 20063.

80. Oplismenus burmannii P. Beauv.
Waghai: Asrana 3042.

81. Oplismenus compositus (Linn.) P. Beauv.

Occasional in shade along paths in the forest. Kasarbari: Shah
— 10695 ; Badripada: Asrana: 3268.
82. Panicum miliare Lamk.

An escape from cultivation. Along Nasik Road : Santapau 20107.

83. Panicum montanum Roxb.

Rare, in shade along paths in the forest. Along Nasik Road:
Santapau 20060 ; Ahwa: Shah 10628.
84. Panicum psilopodium Trin.

Rare. Unai: Santapau 17146.
2

210 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

85. Setaria glauca (Linn.) P. Beauv.
Dangs : Mehendale 44; Pimpri: Asrana 2756.

86. Setaria italica (Linn.) P. Beauv.

This is said to be cultivated at Waghai; but only a few plants seen
in fields of Eleusine.

*87, Sorghum controversum (Steud.) Snowden

2-3 m. tall, gregarious near water in shaded places. Unai: Santapau
17099.

88. Sorghum halepense (Linn.) Pers.

2m, tall, in fields near river, not in clumps. Waghai: Santapau
19613 ; Subir : Asrana 3508.

*89, Sorghum miliaceum (Roxb.) Snowden var. miliaceum
Subir-Ahwa Road: Asrana 2841, 3209.

*90. Themeda quadrivalvis (Linn.) O. Kuntze var. quadrivalvis

In dense clumps in open parts of the forest; generally 1-1°50 m. tall,
sometimes 2-2:50 m. tall. Sunda: Shah 10738; Kasarbari: Shah 10691.

*O1. Themeda triandra Forsk.
Abundant on the edges of the cultivated fields. Unai: Santapau

16952, 17366-7.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are deeply thankful to Dr. N. L. Bor, Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew, for the identification of grasses.

On the Marine Fauna of the
Gulf of Kutch

Part HI—PELECYPODS (Continued)

H. L. KUNDU

Department of Zoology, Birla Institute of Technology & Science, Pilani
(Rajasthan)

(With 13 plates)

[Continued from Vol. 62 (1): 103]

Family VENERIDAE (Continued)
Genus Paphia (Bolten) Roding

Shell oval, smooth, and has either deep or shallowconcentric markings.
Pallial sinus deep and the hinge margin is thin and short and the lunule
long. These are also called ‘tapestry shells’ as some of them (e.g.

_ Paphia textile) have beautiful coloured patterns on the shells.

52. Paphia textile (Gmelin). Plate XVI, figs. 53a, 53b

Except the region near the umbo, there are strong concentric grooves
all over the surface of the shell. There are also characteristic rust-brown
V-shaped markings upon the surface (giving it a tapestry-like appear-
ance). The lunule extends to nearly half of the hinge. Inside is
glossy and the region near the umbo has a slight orange hue which does
not usually extend beyond the pallial line. The pallial sinus is deep
and broadly U-shaped.

Pirotan Island.

53. Paphia malabarica (Chemnitz). Plate XVI, figs. 54a, 54b
A white comparatively short and light shell internally moderately
glossy and externally chalky-white with close, fine concentric
Striations. The pallial sinus is deep and like an open ‘ V’.
In the Gulf of Kutch dead shells of this species are washed ashore
_ in large quantities.
Pirotan Island.
[58]

212 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

54. Paphia alapapiliones Roding. Plate XVI, figs. 55a, 55b

Shell glossy, nearly twice as long as high and has a pale brown
colour. On the outside there are flattened concentric lines which become
almost imperceptible at the anterior and the posterior ends. The margin
in front of the umbo is slightly upturned and the umbo is more towards
the middle than in the two preceding species. The impressions of the
adductors are deep and the pallial sinus is narrow and long.

Veraval.

Genus Pitar E. Romer |

Shell ovate or like an isosceles triangle, with or without concentric
striations upon the surface, and the three cardinal teeth converge beneath
the umbo. The second and the third cardinals are cleft in the middle.

55. Pitar erycina (Linné). Plate XVII, figs. 56a, 56b

Shell strong, moderately inflated with distinct concentric ridges all
over the surface ; outer surface light-brown with dark-brown bands (4 to
5), radiating from the umbo towards the periphery. In fresh specimens
there are fine, brown zigzag markings rendering a tapestry shading ; inside
smooth, faint orange towards the umbo and white towards the periphery;
pallial sinus wide and deep. There is a slight (but definite) waviness in
the postero-ventral side, which creates a small concavity on the
peripheral line and a corresponding undulation in the circular ridges.
Owing to this, there appears to be a shallow keel running from the
umbo to the postero-ventral margin. In some shells this concavity
and hence the keel are less pronounced than in others.

Veraval. Pirotan Island.

56. Pitar nobilis (Reeve). Plate XVII, figs. 57a, 57b

Shell longer than that of P. erycina, white, and the posterior
concavity (and the resultant keel) of the rim less pronounced. The
concentric rings upon the surface, although distinct, are somewhat
flattened. We have two rather worn out shells in the collection.

Pirotan Island.

Genus Circe Schumacher

Although Thiele (1935) synonymized the genus under Gafrarium,

both Gravely (1941) and Satyamurti (1956) have given it an independent |

status. I have followed them. Flattened, nearly circular shells with

close concentric sculpture. The pallial sinus is very small, The

cardinal teeth are low and the hinge very thick.
[59 ]

i Bg 2 mie

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE XVI

Ms ep.

£
Zz
‘
Y .
4
4, s
1
3
ba i?
>
=
i.
4
3

Figs. 53a, 53b. Paphia textile : outer and inner views respectively ;
| Figs. 54a, 54b. Paphia malabarica : outer and inner views respectively ;
| Figs. 55a, 55b. Paphia alapapiliones : outer and inner views respectively

PLATE XVII

journ. BomBAY Nat. Hist. Soc.

ae —Sa
6 so
= SNS

~“

?
e
2

d inner views respectively
d inner views respectively

: outer an
ipta : outer and inner views respective

bilis

56b. Pitar erycina: outer an

$5
Lea
~~ VY
SS
ALO
oye}
T 00
WWMM
oa
\O tf CO
Va ov @)
ann
on oO OO
om ors Ors
fo, fy

MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH—III 213

57. Circe scripta (Linne). Plate XVII, figs. 58a, 58b

Shell very flat, fairly heavy with the hind margin somewhat trun-
cated. Some of the fine circular ridges tend to coalesce in the rear.
There are also fine divaricating zigzag brown markings upon the surface.
~ Adductor impressions are pronounced and their outer sides are somewhat
raised. Pallial sinus is slight and the area along with the pallial line
is pinkish, the rest faint yellow.

Gulf of Kutch (the exact locality was not recorded),

Genus Venus Linne

Heavy, ovate shells with mostly well-pronounced concentric as well
as radial sculpture, three well-formed cardinal teeth, distinct and heart-
shaped lunule and crenate inner rim.

58. Venus chemnitzii Hanley. Plate XVIII, figs. 59a, 59b

Venus chemnitzii can be easily confused with Periglypta fischeri
(Reéecluz), but the pallial sinus in P. fischeri is markedly truncate and in
this species it is like a moderate ‘V’. Both the concentric rings and the
radial rays are well developed, the concentric rings in the form of thin
lamellae, and the radial rays in the form of thin and very close ridges
which cross the concentric lamellae in a manner that gives the latter a
corrugated appearance. In the area behind the umbo the lamellae aie
so closely adpressed that the radial ridges cannot be traced. The
radial ridges are more numerous than the concentric lamellae. In this
specimen there are about 70 lamellae and 90 to 100 ridges. The
lamellae are so thin that chey easily break off. The outside is dull white
but streaked with occasional brown radial patches. The inside and the
cardinal teeth are white. The pallial sinus is angular.

Pirotan Island.

59. Venus reticulata Linne. Plate XIX, figs. 60a, 60b

A dull-white heavy and large shell which can be easily recognized by
its orange-coloured hinge teeth. The outside presents a reticulate
sculpture owing to the presence of thick concentric lamellae and some-
what weaker radial lines. As a result of their decussations the surface
presents a tuberculate appearance. Moreover the radial lines,
especially in the rear, are somewhat wavy. The pallial sinus is like a
broad U.

Pirotan Island,

[ 60 ]

214. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)
Genus Sunetta Link

The shell has a nearly oval shape, polished internal surface, finely
toothed rim, and a depressed ligamentary area. The lunule is also
somewhat depressed.

60. Sunetta scripta (Linné). Plate XIX, figs. 61a, 61b

Shell smooth but has flattened and somewhat faint concentric lines.
There are also brown chevron-shaped colour-patterns upon the surface.
The intensity of these patterns varies from place to place. Sunetta
scripta from Puri (Bay of Bengal) has a deep and impressive colour-
pattern which extends right up to the umbo, but in Swnetta scripta
from Gulf of Kutch the pattern is considerably mild and the umbo is
practically white. There is a characteristic wedge-shaped concave area
behind the umbo. The inside of the shell is white, glossy with mode-
rately deep pallial sinus and crenulated rim.

Pirotan Island. Hanuman Dandi.

Genus Gafrarium (Bolten) Roding

The pallial sinus, if sinuate, is only slightly so. The shell is thick
and solid with concentric radial sculpturings. Lunule flat and
distinct. The rim of the inside is either finely crenulated or coarsely
denticulated.

61. Gafrarium divaricata (Chemnitz). Plate XIX, figs. 62a, 62b

A roundish and somewhat flattened shell whose outer surface is
beautifully sculptured with big concentric and divaricating radial ridges.
The concentric ridges tend to fade out posteriorly and anteriorly.
Furthermore, there are characteristic reddish brown zigzag markings
upon the surface. The inside presents a glossy surface with a slight
pallial sinus and a faintly crenate rim. |

Hanuman Dandi.

62. Gafrarium tumidum Roding. Plate XX, figs. 63a, 63b

- A very heavy, roundishly oval shell with prominent radial and
concentric ridges. In relation to the length and height, this is the
heaviest shell in our collection from the Gulf of Kutch. Shell greenish
white ; radial ribs wide and strong and present a nodular appearance
owing to the crossing of the concentric rings ; towards the rim the radia,
ribs tend to bifurcate. A single radial rib sends out secondary radial
ribs covering the posterior 4th of the shell. The insideis chalky white with
somewhat depressed and glossy adductor scars, very faint pallial sinus,
and coarsely denticulated rim, These denticulations are absent from

[61]

JOURN. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE XVIII

46mm.

macs aretestoaleys

rn %, 5
Bee E

Some:
anes
é se ieee Wed

“h
9

< Ne

RAV RO
rity ANY RW, ‘ :.

TASS

\ An NA

Ene

respectively

JOURN. BomMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE XIX

Figs. 60a, 60b. Venus reticulata : outer and inner views respectively ;
Figs. 61a, 61b. Sunetta scripta: outer and inner views respectively ; |
Figs. 62a, 62b. Gafrarium divaricata : outer and inner views respectively |

MARINE FAUNA, OF GULF OF KUTCH—III 215

the posterior jth of the rim. There is a shallow keel in the middle of
the inside and also a dark-brown mark in thé postero-ventral corner.
These shells attain a much larger dimension (than the one described
here), becoming relatively more thick (as well as elongated), and the
posterior dark patch tends to spread upwards.
Pirotan Island.

Genus Dosinia Scopoli

Shell round, flattened with fine concentric ridges and a deep
V-shaped pallial sinus, wide hinge, beak-like umbo, and sunk ligament.

63. Dosinia puella Angas. Plate XX, figs. 64a, 64b

Shell dull white with fine brown V-shaped markings, with a
characteristic angulation about the middle of the posterior margin and
somewhat coarse concentric rings (only in comparison with the shells of
other families) ; lunule dark brown, small but distinct, depressed and
heart-shaped ; line of the rim above the angulation nearly straight.

Hanuman Dandi.

64. Dosinia cretacea (Reeve). Plate XX, figs. 65a, 65b

Shell thick with alternate concentric shades of blue and white.
There is an angulation at about the middle of the posterior rim, and the
line above the rim towards the umbo is more or less arched. The hinge
is very thick and the angle formed by the posterior cardinal teeth and
the lunule is nearly a right angle.

Hanuman Dandi.

Genus Tapes Megerle von Muhlfeld

Shell elongate with hind margins broad and somewhat truncate, and
the dorsal margin behind the umbo nearly a straight line. Only one
species was found.

65. Tapes radiatus (Chemnitz). Plate XX, figs. 66a, 66b

Shell elongate with fine radial grooves and ridges; a few (here 5)
strong concentric lines of growth present; pallial sinus very large,
U-shaped and nearly horizontal. Only one complete specimen.

Veraval.

Genus Venerupis Lamarck |

These shells are characterized by the presence of concentric widely
spaced and crested laminae, The umbo is situated near the anterior end.
| | [62 ]

ee}

216 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

66. Venerupis macrophylla Deshayes. Plate XXI, figs. 67a, 67b

A white somewhat rectangular shell with the posterior edge truncated
and the umbo directed forwards. A keel runs from the umbo to the
postero-ventral corner of the rim. There are a few delicate concentric
foliaceous lamellae, whose free margins, towards the postero-ventral
end, look somewhat crumpled. In between these lamellae, there are
very fine and minute radial lines. The inner surface is smooth and
there is a large V-shaped pallial sinus. These live mostly in crevices
amongst oysters as a result of which their shape varies a lot.

‘Veraval.

Family MESODESMATIDAE

Shell heavy, ovately triangular with the anterior side more pointed
than the posterior.

Genus Mesodesma Deshayes

Shell stout, slightly inequilateral with a thick hinge and strong
cardinal and elongated lateral teeth.

67. Mesodesma glabratum (Lamarck). Plate XXI, figs. 68a, 68b

Hornell (1951) has described this species as Atactodea glabrata |

Gmelin. The shell which has a somewhat flattened fulvous outside
is characterized by fairly strong and regular concentric rings. There is
also a thin dark-yellow pellicle (periostracum ?) which envelops the shell.
The inside is glossy and the pallial sinus small. The pallial sinus and
the adductor impression together present a bi-cuspid appearance. One
point deserves special attention. The pallial sinus is situated in the
side towards which the umbo is directed.
Pirotan Island.

Family MACTRIDAE (False Clams)

Shell mostly light and nearly triangularly ovate (except Lutraria).
There is a prominent hinge-pit, thin and elongated lateral teeth, and
in the left valve only one cardinal tooth.

Genus Mactra Linné

Shell triangular, the cardinal teeth bifid, ligament well developed,
and pallial sinus semi-lunar,
[63]

JourN. BompAy NAT. HIST. SOc. PLATE XX

ASO SSA N
y ca Rp UN ;

Figs, 63a, 63b.
Figs, 64a, 64b.
Figs. 65a, 65b.
Figs. 66a, 66b.

Ayr

4
{

f;
Hi

Rats i.
Hye :
yh y I, Y

ismm.

Gafrarium tumidum: outer and inner views respectively ;
Dosinia puella : outer and inner views respectively ;
Dosinia cretacea : outer and inner views respectively ;
Tapes radiatus : outer and inner views respectively

JouRN. BomBAyY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE XXI

25mm.

Figs. 67a, 67b. Venerupis macrophylla : outer and inner views respectively ; |
Figs. 68a, 68b. Mesodesma glabratum : outer and inner views respectively ;
Figs. 69a, 69b. Mactra gibbosula: outer and inner views respectively ;
Figs. 70a, 70b. Mactra cuneata : outer and inner views respectively

MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH—IlI 217

68. Mactra gibbosula Deshayes. Plate XXI, figs. 69a, 69b

Shell light, gibbous, triangularly cordate, inequilateral and has
fine hair-like concentric markings all over the surface save the umbo ;
inside smooth and light violet; umbo violet but gradually fades into
dull white towards the periphery. The anterior side is short while
the posterior side is long.

Veraval.

69. Mactra cuneata Chemnitz. Plate XXI, figs. 70a, 70b

Shell small, triangular, well inflated and almost equilateral. The
inside is violet, but externally the umbo is bluish violet and the rest
faint bluish white. Concentric marks are very thin and indistinct.

Veraval.

Genus Spisula Gray

These are triangular shells with nearly equa] antero-dorsal and
postero-dorsal sides.

70. Spisula triangularis (Lamarck). Plate XXII, figs. 71a, 71b

Shell white with smooth but definite concentric markings upon its
surface. The inside is smooth and glossy. The adductor impressions
are sunk. In general appearance the shell looks like a wide bilateral
triangle with an obtuse apical angle.

Pirotan Island.

Genus Standelia Gray

The valves are inequivalves, white, thin, radially sculptured and
gape in front and behind. The pallial sinus is very large.

71. Standella nicobarica (Gmelin). Plate XXII, figs. 72a, 72b

Shell easily recognized by its pure white colour, lightness, and
fine radial ridges all over the surface; dorsal margin behind the
umbo almost straight and the posterior end somewhat truncated. Upon
the surface of the hind end the radial ridges are very fine and divaricate
from one radial ridge. There are a few shallow growth rings. The
pit of the nodule of the ligament is triangular and the cardinal tooth is
thin. These shells are washed ashore in large numbers.

Pirotan Island.

72. Standella pellucida (Gmelin). Plate XXII, figs. 73a, 73b
An elliptical shell with the umbo placed in the middle of the
dorsal line ; pallial sinus narrow but deep. The shell is fairly thin and
its outer surface bears fine concentric rings.
Pirotan Island,
[64]

218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)
Genus Lutraria Lamarck

The hind part of the upper margin of the shell and the lower margin
are nearly parallel. The pit for the nodule of the ligament is large and
conical and the side teeth as well as the grooves for their reception
are thin.

73. Lutraria arcuata Deshayes. Plate XXII, figs. 74a, 74b

Shell arcuately oblong; the anterior as well as the posterior sides
rounded ; dorsal rim behind the umbo is slightly concavely arched
whereas the rim in front of it is convexly arched. Surface covered with
a thin greenish brown horny periostracum and sculptured with fine
concentric lines (although somewhat irregular). The inside is glossy
white and the pallial sinus is large and deep. According to Reeve
(1843-78), this species is found in the Philippine Islands too.

Pirotan Island.

Family DONACIDAE (Wedge Shells)

These shells are triangular and have the anterior sides longer than
the posterior. The pallial sinuses are large and rounded.

Genus Donax Linné

The shell is flattened. ‘Ligament in a groove, its nodule external,
mounted on a short ledge.’

74. Donax cuneatus Linné. Plate XXIII, figs. 75a, 75b

There is a keel running from the umbo to the posterior ventral
corner of the edge. The concentric rings behind this keel are sharp and
their rims are granular. The rest of the surface is smoother than this
but has fine concentric and still finer radial sculpturings. There are also
radial bands of white and purpiish brown. The inside is glossy white,
punctuated with wide radial purplish brown marks.

Pirotan Island. Hanuman Dandi.

Family PSPAMMOBIIDAE

These have an oval or elongate shell with the ligament mounted
externally on a thin ledge. There are usually two small cardinal teeth
and no laterals. The pallial sinus is large, U-shaped, and its lower
limb is confluent with the pallial line.

Genus Psammobia Lamarck

These are broadly elongate shells with a somewhat truncate posterior
end. Furthermore the posterior end is slightly narrower than the
anterior end. The shells are rather thin but hard,

[ 65 ] 2

-JourN. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE XXII

Senin
at

ALCON VOY

Figs, 71a, 71b. Spisula triangularis: outer and inner views
respectively ; Figs. 72a, 72b. Standella nicobarica: outer and
inner views respectively ; Figs. 73a. 73b. Standella pellucida:
outer and inner views respectively; Figs. 74a, 74b. Lutraria
arcuata:; outer and inner views respectively

JOURN, BOMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc. | PLATE XXIII

( INS
( « =
WS

Figs. 75a, 75b. Donax cuneatus : outer and inner views respectively ;

Figs. 76a, 76b. Psammobia radiata; outer and inner views respectively ;
Figs. 77a, 77b. Soletellina diphos: outer and inner views respectively ; |
Figs. 78a, 78b. Semele crenulata: outer and inner views respectively |

MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH—III 219

- 75. Psammobia radiata Philippi. Plate XXIII, figs. 76a, 76b

A large faint-pink translucent shell with fine concentric striations
and an indistinct keel running from the umbo to the lower hind angle.
The adductor impressions are deep and the area bound by the pallial line
is thicker than the rest.

Hanuman Dandi.

Genus Soletellina Blainville

These are thin shells of dark hue. Many of them have one or more
whitish streaks radiating from the umbo. Although according to
Gravely (1941) these shells are usually large, the shells in our collection
are all very small and thin. |

76. Soletellina diphos Reeve. Plate XXIII, figs. 77a, 77b

A thin, glossy dark-brown shell (of horny consistency) with very faint
concentric striations and the hind end somewhat truncated. There are
two characteristic whitish streaks running from the umbo to the rear of
the horizontal ventral margin. The pallial sinus is very large, and
throughout its ventral side it is merged with the pallial line below.
Crichton (1941) has placed this shell in the family Garidae. However I
have followed Gravely (1941).

Pirotan Island.

Family SEMELIDAE

Shells mostly circular and rather flattened and the ligament, instead
of being mounted on a projecting ledge (e.g. Donacidae, Psammobiidae),
is situated internally within a dagger-shaped groove behind the cardinal
teeth. The cardinal teeth are either one or two and are usually shallow.

Genus Semele Schumacher

The shell is almost round (in lateral view) with fine concentric and
radial ridges upon the external surface. There are two cardinal teeth
(and often a lateral tooth) and a large pallial sinus.

77. Semele crenulata (Sowerby). Plate XXIII, figs. 78a, 78b

The almost round valve has equally pronounced radial and circular
markings. The markings are somewhat faded on the posterior side and
in the vicinity of the umbo. In fresh specimens one can see beautiful
pink rays fanning out from the umbo, resembling in shape the figure of
Semele sinensis A. Adams as given by Gravely (1941).

Pirotan Island,

[ 66 ]

220 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

78. Semele striata (Ruppell). Plate XXIV, figs. 79a, 79b

This shell differs from the previous species in being thicker and in
the absence of radial lines. Moreover it is somewhat squarish.

Pirotan Island.

Family TELLINIDAE (Paper Shells)

These are thin shells with large pallial sinus and usually a beaked
hind margin. The ligament is situated externally. Furthermore, in
addition to the cardinals. the right valve bears lateral teeth.

Genus Tellina Linné

The front margin is roundish. The pallial sinus is extensive. The
valves are characterized by a single cardinal tooth in the left but two in
the right, in addition to which there may be lateral teeth.

79. Tellina coarctata Philippi. Plate XXIV, figs. 80a, 80b

A large inflated white shell with fairly thin but strong valves. The
surface has fine hair-like circular ridges and is characterized by the pre-
sence of a strong keel running from the umbo to the lower hind angle.
There axe also two shallow keels which follow it and one concave keel
that precedes it. The umbo is placed posteriorly. The pallial sinus is
large and rectangular. However, it does not extend beyond ard of the
distance between the posterior and the adductor scars.

Pirotan Island.

80. Tellina pristis Lamarck. Plate XXIV, figs. 81a, 81b

A triangular, flattened and somewhat heavy shell with strong concen-
tric ridges. The hind margin is nearly straight and always toothed.
This toothed nature of the hind margin makes it easy to recognize the
shell. The pallial sinus is very large and almost reaches the anterior
adductor scar. The shell is white.

Pirotan Island.

81. Tellina ala Hanley. Plate XXV, figs. 82a, 82b; figs. 83a, 83b

A thin, flattened, and elliptical shell having the surface covered with
extremely fine concentric markings ; hind margin notched into a definite
beak, rest of the margin evenly rounded and smooth. There is hardly
any keel. The pallial sinus is very large and reaches nearly the anterior
adductor scar. There is at least one small scar near the ventral hind —
angle, outside the pallial line.

Tellina ala appears to be a rather variable species. We have in our
collection another specimen of 7. ala from the same locality which has
a definite keel extending from the beak to the umbo. Moreover this

[ 67]

- JourRN. BomMBAy Nat. HIst. Soc. : PLATE XXIV

Figs. 79a, 79b. _ Semele striata: outer and inner views respectively;
Figs. 80a, 80b. Tellina coarctata: outer and inner views respectively ;
Figs. 8la, 81b. Tellina pristis : outer and inner views respectively

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOc. PLATE XXV

eae

PEL ays

———

i "ty

38mm.

Figs. 82a, 82b. Tellina ala: outer and imner views respectively ;

Figs. 83a, 83b. Tellina ala: (another variety) ; |

Figs. 84a, 84b. Tellina emarginata : outer and inner views respectively ;
Figs. 85a, 85b. Tellina bruguieri! outer and inner views respectively

MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH—III 221

one has a more inflated shell and a smoother surface than the previous

one (figs. 83a, 83b).

Pirotan Island (both specimens).

82. Tellina emarginata Sowerby. Plate XXV, figs. 84a, 84b

Shell very thin (but hard), parabolic, and has extremely fine con-
centric markings upon the surface. However, instead of a keel there is
a characteristic radial furrow in the posterior side. Hence the posterior
rim looks like a ‘S$’, and has a corresponding internal ridge.

Pirotan Island.

83. Tellina bruguieri Hanley. Plate XXV, figs. 85a, 85b

A faicly strong shell almost triangular with large and somewhat
bent cardinal tooth and an elongate scar for the anterior adductors. The
right valve has a very large cardinal tooth. All over the surface there
are very fine hair-like concentric lines.

Pirotan Island.

There are some members of this species which are characterized by
the possession of a much thinner shell with extremely fine concentric
markings. Plate XXVI, figs. 86a, 86b.

Pirotan Island.

Genus Gastrana

These are characterized by the possession of heavy, oval shells having
fairly conspicuous and comparatively thick concentric markings (in
comparison with members of Te/lina), which in fresh shells look like con-
centric lamellae.

84, Gastrana polygona (Hanley). Plate XXVI, figs. 87a, 87b.

A heavy shell with strong keels radiating out from the umbo. Two
such keels which run towards the hind end are more pronounced than
the rest and impart to the hind rim a wavy outline. The anterior rim
is round. In fresh shells the outer surface is covered with thin lamellar
concentric rings. In old ones these lamellae tend to break off. Inside,
near the proximal end of the anterior adductor scar, there is a tooth-like
process. The shell is white but when viewed from the inside, the centre
of the valve presents a yellowish hue.

Pirotan Island.

Family GLAUCOMYIDAE

These are oval and inflated shelJs with large V-shaped pallial sinus.
According to Hornell (1951) these shells are frequent in brackish water.
[ 68 |

222 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)
Genus Glaucoma

Characters same as above.

85. Glaucomya cerea Reeve. Plate XXVIII, figs. 94a, 94b
The shell is comparatively thin, dull white in colour, and has fine
concentric striations all over the surface. The adductor impressions
are narrow and the tips of the cardinal teeth are split.
_ Pirotan Island.

- Family SOLENIDAE (Razor Shells)

The shell is tubular with the umbo usually placed at its anterior end.

Genus Solen Linné

The shells are long and cylindrical. Both the front and the hind
margins are truncated. There is only one tooth in each valve.

86. Solen truncatus Wood. Plate XXVI, figs. 88a, 88b

The upper and the lower margins are parallel to one another. The
front margin is vertical but slightly inclined forwards. The hind margin
is a little rounded off. There is also a vertical furrow near the rim of
the front margin. The tooth is placed close behind the front margin.
The pallial line runs somewhat obliquely from the anterior to the poste-
rior end.

Belarpur Bay.

Genus Cultellus Schumacher

The shell is fairly thick, moderately elongated but round at both
ends. The umbo is placed far behind the anterior end. The cardinal
teeth are two.

87. Cultellus maximus (Gmelin). Plate XXVI, figs. 89a, 89b

Shell rather small, white and glossy with fine concentric striations
on the surface and the posterior end more tapering than the anterior.
The anterior adductor scar is triangular while the posterior one is oval.
The pallial sinus is very shallow and semi-lunar.

Pirotan Island.

Family GASTROCHAENIDAE

The shell is somewhat elongated or round, and the ligament is
_ external and mounted on a ledge.
[ 69 |

JouRN. BoMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC, PLATE XXVI

c-— ee we = -- ewer -—- =

88a

Figs. 86a, 86b. Tellina bruguieri : (another variety) ;

Figs. 87a, 87b. Gastrana polygona: outer and inner views respectively ;
Figs. 88a, 88b. Solen truncatus: outer and inner views respectively ;
Figs. 89a, 89b. Cultellus maximus: outer and inner views respectively

JOURN. BOMBAY. NAT. HIST. SOC. PLATE XXVII

= ———————— ' RS
—_S===>= .
Pe eres on

Figs. 90a, 90b. Gastrochaena lamellosa : Entire animal—lateral and ventral views
respectively ; Figs. 91la-91c. Jouannetia cumingii: entire animal—different views:
Figs. 92a, 92b. Martesia striata: entire animal—tateral and ventral views respec:
tively ; Figs. 93a-93c. Teredo sp.: proximal end of the animal—different views

MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH—Ill 223

Genus Gastrochaena Spengler

These are found mostly among coral rocks. The valves are some-
what twisted, the umbo is placed near the anterior end, and the surface
has fine concentric sculpture. The siphons are fused into one.

88. Gastrochaena lamellosa (Deshayes). Plate XXVII, figs. 90a, 90b
The ventral gape of the entire animal (hiatus) does not reach the
hind end. However, the shell is rather inflated and the hiatus is wide.
The concentric rings approach lamella-like form towards the hind end.
Pirotan Island.

Family PHOLADIDAE (Piddocks)

These bivalves are borers into wood or coral rock and have white,
equi-valved and ribbed (often toothed) shells. The ligament and the
hinge margin are absent. The valves are held together by muscles only.
In the postero-dorsal portion accessory plates may be present. Part of
the anterior end may be folded outwards.

Genus Jouannetia Des Moulins

The shells are nearly ball-like and a partition divides each valve into
a large anterior and a small posterior half.

89. Jouannetia cumingii (Sowerby). Plate XXVII, figs. 91a to 9lc
The shell is more or less like a white globule with a tongue-like

structure (ledge) protruding from one side. Found among coral rocks.
Pirotan Island. Hanuman Dandi.

Genus Martesia (Leach) Blainville
The shell is elongate and has a conical appearance.

90. Martesia striata (Linné). Plate XXVII, figs. 92a, 92b

The anterior ledge looks more or less like a duck’s beak. Except at
the posterior end there are fine striations all over the shell.
Pirotan Island.

Family TEREDINIDAE (Shipworms)

The members of this family usually bore into wood and live within
long hard calcareous tubes produced by their own secretion. The major
portion of the body consists of a long tube formed by the fusion of the
siphons. The distal end of this tube is not fused. Upon the juncture of
the separate siphons with the fused body there are a pair of tiny cal.
careous plates—the pallets. It is said that these pallets protect the animal

[70 }

224. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

from the intrusion of undesirable elements into the body tubes. In the
proximal end of the body there are two small valves.

Genus Teredo Linné

Teredos are characterized by the presence of paddle or spoon-shaped
pallets. Sometimes these pallets bear a calcareous knob at their
terminal ends.

91. Teredo sp. Plates XXVII and XXVIII, figs. 93a to 93h

This specimen, which is preserved in formalin, is nearly 165 mm.
long. Its proximal end is somewhat wide (about 12 mm.) and generally
tapers off towards the distal end where, just before receiving the pallets
and the siphons, the body tube dilates outwards like a flower. There is
a calcareous patch upon one side of this dilatation (fig. 93d). Each pallet
has again a dark, nearly paddle-shaped distal end and a whitish tubular
proximal end (stalk). Inside, each valve has a bent blade-like structure
(Plate XXVIII, fig. 93e).

VI. GENERAL DISCUSSION

(a) Distribution and frequency

A comparison of the present account with the accounts of pelecypods
of Bombay, Karwar, Madras, and Krusadai given respectively by
Hornell (1951), Patil (1952), Gravely (1941), and Satyamurti (1956)
shows that some species which are absent from one or more of these
areas are present in the Gulf of Kutch and vice versa. Also, the
relative abundance of the same species may vary from place to place.
This has been presented in tabular form (Table IV). Such difference in
distribution and abundance may be due to the difference in the habitats.
For example, Pholas bakeri Desh. (Pholadidae) is abundant in the
Bombay area but not found in the Gulf of Kutch. Furthermore, in the
accompanying table (Table IV) an attempt has also been made to give
an idea about the telative abundance of all the species in the Gulf
of Kutch.

(b) Measurements

From a survey of the literature a rather high degree of flexibility
appeared in the methods of measurement adopted by different workers.
Therefore, to avoid confusion, I have’ clearly defined and illustrated all
the measurements I have used in this work (Plate I). I have also recorded
the dry weights of single valves of each species (Table V). It is found
that the valves of some species although of identical geometrical
measurements differ considerably in weight. For example the valves of
Dosinia puella and Dosinia cretacea (Veneridae) have almost the same

[71]

JourN. BomBAy Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE XXVIII

Pallets

3\ mm.

_ Figs. 93d-93h. Teredo sp. (continued from Plate XXVII, fig. 93a): distal end of
‘he animal—various parts. Fig. 93d : distal end ; figs. 93e, 93f: the inner and outer
“ews respectively of one valve; figs. 93g, 93h: both sides of a single pallet.
Figs. 94a, 94b. Glaucomya cerea: outer and inner views respectively

Yar

\ r yu OT aan bee
‘ 5 een ane

rs i A
.
'
+
. Lee
Na
as re 7
hn aca
‘
’
‘
’
z i Poe :
\
~ ) < Ea

MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH—IIl 225

dimensions. However, the valve of D. cretacea is almost twice as
heavy as that of D. puella. Such findings may not be rare with other
species.

If we compare the ratios of length to height of these species we find
that their indices gradually increase from Lithophaga cinnamomea
towards Lithophaga nigra. This will be evident from Table I.

TABLE I

THE LENGTH : HEIGHT INDICES OF Lithophaga (Mytilidae)

Two points emerge. First the length: height ratio gradually
increases from L. cinnamomea to L. nigra. Secondly, those with the
ratio lower than three have ultra-terminal-umbones whereas those with a
ratio above three have infra-terminal umbones. This shifting of the
umbo from an ultra-terminal to an infra-terminal position ox vice versa
must have been the result of gradual change. Unfortunately there is no
Specimen in our collection whose umbo is between these two types,
i.e. just terminal. But I feel strongly inclined to believe that a more
extensive search may lead to the discovery of such an intermediate
‘Stage.

(d) Denticuiations in the hinge of Meretrix (Veneridae)

On one lateral tooth and its corresponding groove, all Meretrix shells
have some fine denticulations. When examined under a microscope,
these present extremely fine and varied configurations. Here at least one
feature merits special attention. The number of the denticles usually
_Varies directly with the length of the groove (or the tooth). Table II
will illustrate this point.

[72]

226

TABLE. IT

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN. THE NUMBER OF DENTICLES AND THE LENGTH OF THE
GROOVE BEARING THE DENTICLES UPON THE HINGE OF Meretrix (VENERIDAE)

Length of the

Length of the |
|
|

Number of the

Specimen valve groove denticulations
eA 65:0 mm. Sp 2m. 52
2 63:0 mm. 12°5 mm. 7
3 39°1 mm. 5°8 mm. 39
4 30°8 mm. 5:2 mm. 32
5 30°0 mm. 5°3 mm. 28
6 30°1 mm. 5:1 mm. 26
if 27°8 mm, 3:7 mm. 23

A more thorough study with a large number of shells may lead to the
establishment of a correlation between the age of a pelecypod ey
and the number of denticulations in its valve.

(e) Relation between the shape a the age of the valve

During the present work it is noticed that some shells change their
shape as they grow. Gafrarium tumidum (Veneridae) has a roundish

valve when young. The valve becomes more elongate with age. This
will be apparent from Table IIT.
TABLE III
MEASUREMENTS OF G. tumidum (VENERIDAE) OF DIFFERENT SIZES
- | | |
Specimen |} Length Height De>th — Length: Height Weight
1° 195271 mm. | 7420 mm. | “21S eum. 1:25 39:995 gm.
2. 449mm. | 355mm. | 14-4 mm. 1-26 14:505 gm.
3° | 40:0: mms |) 332 mm.) 14°6 min. 1:20 12:004 gm.
4 378mm. | 31:0 mm. 12°7 mm. 1:20 9°779 gm.
_ 5 | 31-4mm. | 268mm. | 10:5 mm. 117 5703. gm.
6 | 28:0 mm. | 23'5 mm. 9°3 mm. 1:19 4:264 gm.
|
7 ( 21°7 tim. 20'0 mm. 5°8 mm. 1:08 1°597 gm.

Therefore it is felt, in describing a pelecypod shell, its dimensions

and weight are very useful.

[73]

tN
Ww
=.

MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH—III

TABLE IV

DISTRIBUTIONAL FREQUENCY OF THE PELECYPODS OF THE GULF OF KUTCH
AND A COMPARISON SHOWING THEIR RELATIVE ABUNDANCE ON
OTHER COASTS OF INDIA

(XXO = very abundant; XX = abundant : XO= common; X = occasional;
O=rare; P= present; P (?) = the author has mentioned the genus
: but not the species)

DISTRIBUTIONAL FREQUENCY

|
|

SPECIES

GULF OF
KUTCH
BoMBAY
(Hornell

1951)

KARWAR

(Patil 1952)

MADRAS

(Gravely
1941)

(Satyamurti
1956)

KRUSADAI Is.

es |

ARCIDAE

Arca gubernaculum Soe O

. granosa eal ene

. rhombea x
. inaequivalvis . cal Ker
. tortuosa are OX
. symmetrica soll, oO,
. navicularis
. avellana

pllnay e
A. fusca ee cael OO:
Sab bt

moar www

=
Leap
o
=
@

A. complanata

A. bistrigata

SP eT ee ee
WL Rel [eee alee ecae
[UU me] wyU UT
| | PU] wey] [

Barbatia obliquata

|
ry
x

MYTILIDAE
Mytilus viridis Ala @)
Modiolus metcalfei eX @)
Septifer bilocularis al O
Lithophaga cinnamomea ee)
L. sp. (near cinnamomea) . O
L. sp. (near teres) sel XO
L. teres --| XO

_L. nigra oa XO

le palate
Heard hal eas
lvicl isle wee
od] | wu

PTERIIDAE
Pinctada vulgaris sell, XO)

|
~
a

GLYCIMERIDAE
Glycimeris taylori eel, XXO

PINNIDAE
Pinna bicolor
Pinna atropurpurea

| |
| |

| |
ro

PECTINIDAE
Pecten tranquebaricus
P. distans Se
P. crassicostatus Sn
P. pyxidatus Se
Spondylus layardi a

xox x
hay
owe
Sania
wi vit

LIMIDAE
Lima lima Seal

*
|
|
|

an)

ANOMIIDAE
Anomia achaeus oh
Placenta placenta. Leet XO-

We
| |
re
o

228 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

_ TABLE 1V—(Continued)

DISTRIBUTIONAL FREQUENCY
| a | keh
ees @ ae
SPECIES su lag, | #2 | oe (eee
| g Ses ss Bast Ban
Be 1685 | #e-| 2ES | ges
OSTREIDAE
Ostrea madrasensis calorie aa P P P
O. folium 4 = ak [ee es P
CRASSATELLIDAE |
Crassatella rostrata al XO its P P
CARDITIDAE
Cardita bicolor eel. GET Vs ae P
Beguina variegata shell — P() 3 Re
LIBITINIDAE |
Libitina vellicata age a ales ei, pec
LUCINIDAE |
Lucinia edentula enh XO — = P Rt 2
Codakia divergens Sa hae ac as sak ; p/p
Divaricella cumingii <1 2@ oa iia Bes. P
CHAMIDAE
Chama spinosa mai exe eo ita rs
C. fragrum dle UX = =—
C. reflexa Arp ne — ~~ a
( |
CARDIIDAE
Cardium asiaticum ee. P et P P
C. assimile sie) ORO = —— P P
C, australe .-| XO — —— P P
C. flavum -», XO — | ae anh P
C. setosum --) XO — | oo Pare P
VENERIDAE |
Meretrix meretrix Ba irs, ¢ @ P P a6 =a:
M. casta seine. 4 — _— iP P
Paphia textile - | XX P P (?) P P
P. malabarica -.| XXO — — P P
P. alapapiliones oe == a= P P
Pitar erycina Briere. < @ — —— P P
P. nobilis aime, 4 = | — == P’
Circe scripta Sol OO — |tgal Go em pees © P
Venus chemnitzii <1 RO), — P (?) — P
V. reticulata c/n — P(?) — P
Sunetta scripta =f | — Ps ot ae P
Gafrarium divaricata Bal) Oe ike — bl eo P
G. tumidum -.|= XO _— P(?) | — P
Dosinia puella 561 XO | — — — P
D. cretacea ahi, ¢ — PQ) P ls
Tapes radiatus oe | Rew — P (?) — P
Venerupis macrophylla ie a he — ees P
MESODESMATIDAE | | | :
Mesodesma glaberatum =...) X - —- | = yeas
MACTRIDAE | | |
Mactra gibbosula a) AO — P (?) ! —~ |
|

eee age

MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH—III 229

TABLE [V—(Continued)

eer eS
DISTRIBUTIONAL FREQUENCY

[76 }

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

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231

MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH—III

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DIDAJSOA DIJAJVSSVAQ
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SISUASDAPDUL DAlISE

vjuaIvjd Duar] g
snavyov vIUMOoUup
DUN] DUNT.
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snjopixdd uajzadg
SN]DISOIISSDAD * J
SUDISIP “I

snaidoganbuval uajaag
DaANGANdOAlD °F

AOJOIIG DUUIT

SLIDSINA DpD{IU

pasiu Wf

Sada] *'T

(Sadaj Jeo) ‘ds *T
(vatoupuuis yeu) ‘ds °7

DauowuDpuUuld DsvYdoY}IT
s14pjnaoj1q dafiiday’

[zL}

Note.

The figures within brackets a v t
describe a specimen the two valves of which are hinge

TABLE V

SUMMARY OF ALL THE MEASUREMENTS TAKEN ON THE VALVES OF THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF
PELECYPODS FROM THE GULF OF KUTCH

re those of the valves illustrated in this paper. The word ‘shell’ is used in the second column to
d together, and the word ‘ pair’ when the valves have come apart.

132d

jg 33 i Weight
a9 Length Height Depth g
Species a = 3 (range) (range) (range) (range) Remarks
528 mm. mm. mm. gm.
ao |
— a | — 7 aes Hy lic 7 1 |
| |
H H ¢ : | 14:1 to 213 | 7°836 to 23°316
Arca gubernaculum 37 ee 0 31 Base si ee) Cine)

A. granosa

. rhombea

. inaequivalvis
. fortuosa

. symmetrica

. navicularis

. avellana

A. fusca

A. complanata
A. bistrigata

Sa ae

Barbatia obliquata
Glycimeris taylori

Mytilus viridis

Modiolus metcalfei

Septifer bilocularis
Lithophaga cinnamomea

L. sp. (near cinnamomea)

L. sp. (near teres)
L. teres

L. nigra

Pinctada vulgaris
Pinna bicolor

P. atropurpurea

Pecten tranquebaricus

P. distans

P. crassicostatus
Pecten pyxidatus
Spondylus layardi
Lima lima
Anomia achaeus
Placenta placenta

Ostrea madrasensis

O. folium

Crassatella rostrata

Cardita bicolor

(25:2) to 63°5

7
3

3 24°3 to (26°9)
2 18*1 to (36°6)
8 15°1 to (29°1)
3 15°6 to (16°8)
1 (2974)

10 13°5 to (25°0)
41 23°3 to (38°8)
16 11*1 to (26°6)
3 (33°3) to 37°3
(17°7)
1 (40°5)
shell
59 8-8 to (25°7)
2 | 0-8) to 109-6
3 (41-0)

(22:5) to 57-2

22:0 to (24'6)
15:4 to (31:5)
7-9 to (13'0)
10°8 to (13°2)
(17-0)
8:3 to (14:5)
12°6 to (26:0)
7:0 to (20°5)
(18:0) to 20°4
(10°0)
(16-0)

7:3 to (24°5)
(16'5) to 52.5
(215)

(10°5) to 26°6

11:0 to (13:0)
6'0 to (13°2)
3:0 to (6°1)
5:0 to (6:2)
(8°4)
4-4 to (8°3)
4:2 to (8:3)
3:0 to (66)
(7:9) to 9:2
(41)
(65)

2:0 to (8:1)
(6:0) to 180
(8-2)

1 (19°4) (11-2) (46)
1 (23°2, (10:5) (6°6)
shell
4 22°8 to 27:3 8:3 to 10°4 47 to 58
pairs (27-2) (9°8) (5°8)
18 | 14:3 to 34:0 6°0 to 12:2 2°8 to 6-2
pairs (26:2) (9:0) (5:0)
8 18:0 to 43:3 6°0 to 13°5 3:5 to 58
pairs (32°6) (10°0) (4-2)
14 | 18:3 to 73-0 4-4 to 18:0 20to 79
Pairs (40:0) (10°6) (4:6)
23 44:1 to 67°3 40°0 to 77:0 70 to 18:4
(59°3) (53°0) (7:0)
15 125-0 to 235-0 63°0 to 145°0 7-1 to 21:0
pairs (200°0) (104-0) (16°6)
4 (264°0) (114-0) (20:0)
pairs
1 (24-2) (26°7) (6°4)
2 21°5 to (25:5) 21°5 to (26°2) 2°7 to (2:9)
1 (44:0) (42:0) (11-9)
2 | 41°6 to (43-2) 39°7 to (42°3) , 9:5 to (10°6)
1 (45:0) (49°9) (12°5)
1 (31°5) (26°9) (7-8)
1 (36:0) (34-1) (9°4)
7 86:0 to 106:0 30 ete
| (93°0)
it (88:0) (167:0) an
1 | (25°5) (350) (14-3)
shell (22°7) (29°4) (8:0)
9 | 13°7 to (24°4) 9°8 to (18°0) 2:3 to (5°8)
59 90 ito ay 8°S to 31°6 3°3 to 14:2

(3'364) to 41°520

| 2-781 to (4°514)
| 0:577 to (2925)
0°148 to (0°735)
| 0:320 to (0:564)
| (1:749)

| 0°182 to (1°139)
| 0°613 to (3-054)
0:070 to (1°681)
| (1:735) to 2°537
(0°294)

(1°632)

0:078 to (2:267)

| (0-358)
(1838)

0'780 to 1°436
(1°436)
0:133 to 0:927
(0:927)
0:305 to 0°850

| (0°724)
0:072 to 1:396*
(0:794)
4339 to 43-975
(10:245)
5:232 to 72:0
(47:0)
(109:0)

(1-094)

0:365 to (0°863)
(2:574)
2:726 to (3°639)
(8°608)
(2:431)
(2:736)
17°5 to 27-827
(17°5)

(430°0)

(6°526)

(3°687)
0°224 to (1°630)
0'165 to 9°608

(0-952) to 21-620)
(1-419)

The big one is from
Puri (Orissa)+

All were caught alive.
Figs. 12a & 12b
Figs. 12c & 12d

Smaller ones are very
common.

All of same size.

Weight of the whole
shell

* Only one dry valve

_All of nearly same
size

However we have a
large no. of these shells
| from Trivandrum
| (Kerala)

Only the diameters
have been given

Left valve
Left valve
Right valve

io ( (24°4) (10°3) (3°084) |

087

@ 7 ‘190A ‘XIFIOOS “ISIH TKYNLYN AVAWOE “TI¥NYNOL

“II—HOLINY AO JTND JO ¥NAVA ANIMVW

TEz

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

232

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TABLE V—(Continued)

(aa

g 58y th Height Depth Weight S
S Speci 2 a 3 ees (range) (range) (range) Remarks s
o pecies ES 3 ange ane es aes :
Zo? see =
aes ss ee = S
, H a 7:6 to 18:0 3°4 to 10°5 0:161 to 3°459 S
Beguina variegata 38 12) ree 3 ‘a fo) oy ‘ee (072) E
op 4 4 (37'5) (26°4) (7:0) (2'884) _All of nearly same =
Libitina vellicata ae oes é a
: ° H 53° 7:3 to (22°8) | 0.522 to (11° But the majority are
Lucinia edentula 65 21:8 to (61°5) 19°6 to (531) 5 ¢ ae pl uranebes =
| . . | . . , I: 1 >
ia di 0 to (21.0) 14:9 to(21:0) | 4:0 to (6°8) 0-418 to ( :
Godaleialdivereens 4 | ists (a08) | 136 to 30-0) | 3-4t0(110) | 0148 to 2-034) =
Dia la cumingit 1 (18'5) (19:6) | (67) (1-025) 3
Chama spinosa 1 (21°5) (206) (67) ( 422) Ss
Ye ees i (19°0) (18'1) (10-0) saloon =
ae > | 327 to (443) | 32:6 to (45:0) | 12:7 to (19:0) | 1:584 to (5:920)
ete as as | 32:5 t0 662 | 366 to845 | 13:2to 286 | 4957 to 46-991 my
Cras (43-0) (52:2) (20'5) (167084) Ss
3 24-2 to 33:0 24:2 to 350 10°6 to 14°4 1:747 to 5°265 i
Sara (28:0) Q7'5) (11'5) (2:590) -
9 15:3 to (41.7) 16:0 to (43°3) 5:2 to (15:0) 0:406 to (9 521) S
iain, 11 16°3 to 414 13:0 to 30°6 50to 115 0:413 to 3°763 9
C. setosum (25°1) (21°3) Eo (ey), i ; ee) ae 5
i : Ht 23°9 to (55°5 "2 to F } io) ;
Mere meretrix S 27 ee SS 0) ms 3) Fi ‘ ‘0, : : “280) | Q
phi i cr 0 15:0 to 43°2 “0 to 13" y ~
Paphia textile 35 Cee aia) i300) (8492) 5
i 13 19:0 to 59°4 145 to 470 3°4 to 15°8 0:176 to 5'467 a
P. malabarica . (49°5) (391) i : 0) A : ma) ae 3
ili F H 19:0 to (28° “0 to (9" i F je
B. alapapitionss Be IP otenacay || soma > | Formica | 0376 to 14°700 8
state : (00 | fation | sslee [oul ean
ili : ; 17:0 to (20: “5 to (6° i
Ee es 35 3p0 te a 17°5 to (48-0) 2-4 to (8:5) _| 0°634 to (13750)

Venus chermnitzii 90 9 47°6 to 55°6 40°0 to 46°1 15-2 to 19°8 | 10°298 to 15°894
(55°0) (46-1) (19°8) | (15894)
V. reticulata 5D 6 45:0 to (71°4) 41-0 to (6671) 13°5 to (23°7) 11-594 to (32-858)
Sunetta scripta An 4 19°5 to (31°2) 14-6 to (24:0) 3°5 to (7°2) | 0-527 to (2-718)
Gafrarium divaricatum Sa 89 11:3 to 40°5 9°6 to 36-4 24to10°0 | 0167 to 7-364 Most of these are of
(35°7) (31°4) (8°0) | (4985) large size
i}
G. tumidum 50 30 21-7 to 52-7 20°0 to 42:0 5°8 to 21°0 1:597 to 39-902 Ss
(29'S) (32°6) (15-0) | (12:235) >
Dosinia puella BH 31 17:0 to 33°5 17:0 to 330 43 to 10°3 0°412 to 5:575 5
| (26°8) (26°8) (75) (1°823) &
D. cretacea oe 4 | 9:3 to (26°7) 9:0 to (26°5) 2:2 to (7°7) 0-072 to (3-292) ny
Tapes radiatus 36 3 20°3 to (224) 13°3 to (14:2) 4-0 to (4'5) ° 0-428 to (0°487) All of nearly same 3
| size S
Venerupis macrophylla 5S 5 18°6 to 22°5 1370 to 14:5 40 to 5-0 | 0413 to 0:487 2
(18°6) (14°5) (5-0) (0-487) ms
Mesodesma glabratum ck 12 24°4 to (35:0) 18°6 to (26:0) 5-6 to (81) | 1:293 to (4:217) oy
Mactra gibbosula ne 5 | 22°8 to (31°5) 19°4 to (25:0) 671 to (8°7) 0°629 to (1:994) 7
M. cuneata 50 4 22:0 to (25°0) 19:0 to (21°6) 65 to(7'7) |: 0°835 to (1-273) | Qa
Spisula triangularis aE 1 (34:8) (19°2) (5°8) | (1-789) | (a)
Standella nicobarica ao 37 264 to 47:0 17°6 to 29:0 5:0 to 8:4 | 0-540 to 1:840 Is
(42°3) (27:6) | (8:4) (1840) a
S. pellucida 3 32°6 to 51°6 20°0 to 34°5 59to10':0 | 1:192 to 2-470 However, 10 more ©
(34-0) | (20'9) (671) | (1°192) examples were collected ™
| | from Kiu point (Byet -7
| | Island) in Sept. 1963, ©
| | (G. of Kutch) a
Cutraria arcuata a 3. | (61°5)to79°6 | (30:7) to 36°7 (8°5) to 9°5 (4332) to 8607 a
Donax cuneatus 50 14 18°3 to (31°2) 12°8 to (22°2) 3*7 to (5°8) |: 0°475 to (1-911) |
Psammobia radiata 30 3 | 70:0 to (74°7) 34:0 to (34:4) (9:2) to 10:0 4:098 to (7:466) SS;
Soletellina diphos on 19 | 18:0 to (280) | 10:0 to (15-7) 23 to (4:0) 0:064 to (0°462) =
Semele crenulata 30 18 21:0 to 37-0 18°7 to 33°7 4:0 to 8:0 0:305 to 3-774
(31°8) (30:0) (67) (1-720)
= SS. Striata oc 4 26°6 to (41°5) 25°5 to (38°3) 5°3 to (9:0) 1-054 to (4482)
es Tellina coarctata Bn 1 (58°5) (47-7) (16°7) (6°888)
= ‘CT. pristis ei 33 18'5 to 47:2 14:0 to 36°7 23 to 84 0:146 to 4-819 ;
(46:0) (36:7) (7:0) (4:819) 8
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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

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[sl]

MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH—IIl 235

VII. SUMMARY

A description of 91 species of pelecypods, belonging to 27 families,
from the Gulf of Kutch (west India) is presented with illustrations.
The various areas surveyed include Pirotan Island, Byet Dwarka,
Hanuman Dandi, and Veraval. During the present work it was noticed.
that some shells change their shape along with growth; hence, for
accuracy in description, certain measurements are used which are clearly
defined and illustrated: It has been found thai valves of some species,
although of identical measurements, differ considerably in weight.

An approximate estimate of the relative abundance of different
species of pelecypods for the Gulf of Kutch is discussed and tabulated.
It is shown that the different species of Lithophaga vary from each other
in a general way, the shape of the valves of Gafrarium tumidum changes
with size, and, lastly, the number of the denticles in the RS ga or
Meretrix is related to the size of the valve.

VIII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

- I feel deeply indebted to my esteemed colleague Mr. P. K. B. Menon
for his ready help and advice, to Professor A. K. Datta Gupta for sug-
gesting the problem, and to Principal S. M. Mitra for constant
encouragement during this work. Sincere thanks are also due to my
colleague Dr. S. C. Rastogi for scrutinising the manuscript, to my post-
graduate students for help in collection, and to Dr. M. L. Roonwal,
Director, Zoological Survey of India, for permitting me to use the
library of the Survey. Thanks are also due to Dr. H. C. Ray of the
Zoological Survey of India and Dr. S, T. Satyamurti of Madras Museum
for identifying some of the specimens, and to Professor V. Lakshmi-
narayanan, Director of this Institute, for taking keen interest in the
work and partially financing it.

IX. REFERENCES

CRICHTON, M. D. (1941):
shells of Madras.

Marine

HORNELL, JAMES (1916) : Report to the
J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Government of Baroda on the Marine

Soc. 42 : 323-41.

GIDEON, P. W., MENON, P. K. B., RAo,
S.R. V., & Jose, K. V. (1957): On the
Marine Fauna of the Gulf of Kutch. I.
A preliminary survey. ibid. 54: 690-706.

GRAVELY, F. H. (1941): Shells and
other animal remains found on the
Madras Beach. I. Groups other than
snails etc. Bull. Madras Govt. Mus., New
oe Natural History Section, 5 (1):

Zoology of Okha Mandal in Kathiawar.
2. London.

———— (1917): A revision of the
Indian species of Meretrix. Rec. Indian
Mus. 13: 154-73.

———— (1951): Indian Molluscs.
The Bombay Natural History Society.
Bombay. pp. 96.

PatiL, A. M. (1952): Study of the
marine fauna of the Karwar coast and
neighbouring islands. III. Mollusca

[82]

236 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

(contd.)—Scaphopoda, Pelecypoda and
Cephalopoda. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
51; 29-41.

REEVE, LOVELL (1843-1878) : ‘ Concho-
logia Iconica’ or Illustrations of the
Shells of Molluscous Animals. Vols. 1
to 20. Reeve Brothers, King William
Street, Strand, London.

SATYAMURTI, S. T. (1956): The Mol-
lusca of Krusadai Island (in the Gulf of
Manaar). If. Scaphopoda, Pelecypoda

[83]

and Cephalopoda. Bull. Madras Govt.
Mus,, New Ser.—Natural History Sec-
tion 1:(2), Part 731-202.

THIELE, J. (1935) : Handbuch der sys-
tematischen Weichtierkunde. Zweiter
Band (Scaphopoda, Pelecypoda and
Cephalopoda). Jena. [Reprint, Amster -
dam, 1963. 2 vols. (including Gastro-
pods, Pelecypods etc.). pp. 1154 with
897 figures. |

Eco-toxicology and Control of the
Indian Desert Gerbille, Meriones
hurrianae (Jerdon)

III. Burrow temperature

ISHWAR PRAKASH?, C. G. KUMBAKARNI?, AND A, KRISHNAN?
Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur

[Continued from Vol. 61 (1): 149]

INTRODUCTION

Being diurnal, the Indian Desert Gerbille, Meriones hurrianae
(Jerdon), is more exposed to the vagaries of temperature than the noc-
turnal Indian Gerbille, Tatera indica indica (Hardwicke). In the
Rajasthan desert the soil surface temperature rises to 55°5° C, where-
as for the gerbilles the lethal temperature is 41-42° C. Moreover,
gerbilles are unable to tolerate the warm summer afternoon wind
(40° C.) for more than 8 to 12 minutes. The Desert Gerbille avoids
exposure to this heat and the consequent desiccation of its body by
adjusting its daily and seasonal rhythm in summer and winter (Prakash
1962) and by leading a fossorial life.

These interesting facts led many workers to investigate the micro-
climate inside desert rodent burrows. Vorhies (1945) found that the
temperature in the nest chamber, about 45 cm. deep in the earth, of
the Banner-tailed Kangaroo Rat, Dipodomys spectabilis, shows almost
no diurnal fluctuations. During summer months, the temperature in
the nest chamber is just below 30° C. Schmidt-Nielsens (1950) worked
out the temperature inside the burrows of Dipodomys spectabilis and D.
merriami in the Arizona desert. Petter (1952) also found very little
fluctuation inside the burrows of Psammomys obesus in Beni-Abbes.

TECHNIQUE EMPLOYED

Our experiment was carried out at the Central Research Farm of the
Institute at Jodhpur. Burrow temperatures were measured by Soil
Moisture and Temperature Bridge model 200 B and Philips Rod Ther-

1 Animal Ecologist 2 Senior Research Assistant 3 Climatologist

[ 16]

238 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

mistors type 100°092. The bridge which is Wheatstone type measures
the DC resistance of thermistors within the range 23,700 and 5240 ohms,
corresponding to 0° and 45° C. respectively, when used with this specific
type of thermistor which is supplied with a resistance tolerance of +
25%. The thermistors were calibrated at different temperatures which
were taken into account while recording the final reading. The Philips
Rod Thermistor type 100°092 gives temperature readings accurate to -+-
0:25° C. Itis about 3 cm. long and 0°5 cm. in diameter and is attached
to a long wire which is connected to the bridge. Thermistors were in-
serted in the burrows at various slant depths 50, 100, 150, and 200 cm.,
corresponding on an average to 25, 70, 120, and 150 cm. vertical depth,
by the following two methods. In straight burrows they were inserted
with the help of thick graduated flexible wires. In burrows with bends,
the thermistor was tied to the tail of the gerbille by means of a thread.
After letting the gerbille inside the burrow, it was stopped at the
required depth by holding the graduated thermistor wire. The gerbille
got rid of the thermistor by cutting the thread. The thermistors were
seldom damaged. The hourly observations were taken on two days of
every month and there were four replications for each particular depth.

OBSERVATIONS AND DISCUSSION

Normal temperature pattern at Jodhpur

The climate of Jodhpur is seasonal and the year can be divided into
four distinct seasons : winter, hot weather, monsoon, and post-monsoon.
The normal air temperature data of Jodhpur, averaged for the period
1901 to 1960, are presented below. These data are recorded by
thermometers kept in a well-ventilated Stevenson screen at a height
of 120 cm. above ground level.

TABLE I

NORMAL AIR TEMPERATURE AT JODHPUR (° C.)
(Average of figures for 1901-1960)

st 7) Ls; o 3
> ~~
| §$] 81.8) =) el al 212.) et, eee
al El ee | 2) 2) 3) 2) 2a ee
Q. | fo) oO
allot Beers
| : :
8-30 a.m... | 11° 26:3 | 25°9 | 21°5

18°5 | BSS 292,
5-30 p.m. .. | 23°3 | 27°0 | 32°4 | 37°8 | 40°7 | 38°7 |34°3 | 31'9 | 32°7 | 34:0 | 29°7 |25°0

Mean

maximum | 24°2 | 27°3 32:9 | 37-9 411 | 39°9 | 36°0 | 33°2 | 34°5 | 35°4 | 31°0 |26°4

Mean . | |
minimum 9°6} 11°35 | 16°8 | 21°9 | 26°7 | 27°1 | 26°8 | 25°1 | 23°8 | 18°9 | 13-3 10: 3mm

[17]

ECO-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF INDIAN GERBILLE 239

The characteristic feature of the normal temperature pattern over
Jodhpur is the great extremes of temperature. The period from
December to February constitutes the winter with January as the coldest
month when mean maximum and minimum temperatures are 24:2° and
9-6° C. respectively. Inthe wake of western disturbance, temperature
falls considerably and even frost conditions occur occasionally. In fact
the lowest minimum temperature recorded at Jodhpur so far is — 2°2°C.
in the month of January. Temperatures begin to rise from March and
the period March to June constitutes the hot weather season. May
with the mean maximum temperature of 41°1° C. is the hottest month
of the year. The highest temperature so far recorded is 48:9° C,
‘With the onset of monsoon showers, which normally occur on the first
day of July, temperatures fall and there is less diurnal variation.
The mean daily range of temperature which is generally of the order of
13 to 18° C. during other months becomes 8 to 11° C. during this
season. After the withdrawal of the monsoon, the temperature curve
attains a secondary peak during October and begins to fall during
November. These montlis constitute the post-monsoon season.

In view of the existence of four distinct seasons the recorded hourly
temperatures, at soil surface and at slant depths of 50, 100, 150, and
200 cm. inside the burrows, corresponding to each hour from 7 a.m. to
7 p.m., were averaged season-wise. These values are presented in
Table IJ. For the sake of comparison, the seasonal averages of air
temperature at Jodhpur for each hour from 7 a.m. to 7 p.m. were com-
puted from the thermograph data for the period 1948 to 1952 and are
also included in Table II]. These data are available for Jodhpur from
1948 and are published by the Indian Meteorological Department in the
respective annual summaries. The thermograph recording these data is
placed in a well-ventilated Stevenson screen at a height of nearly 120 ¢ cm.
above ground level.

Temperature outside burrow

a. Average air temperature. Average hourly air temperatures indi-
cate a well-defined peak corresponding to 4 p.m. during winter, between
4 and 5 p.m. during the hot weather, between 3 and 4 p.m. during
monsoon, and at 3 p.m. during post-monsoon season. The average
range of day temperatures during the various seasons is as follows :

RANGE (°C.) ACTUAL VARIATION (°C.)

Winter i 13*1 to 24:8 le
Hot weather ue 28°1 to 39-3 le?
Monsoon va, 26°8 to 33°4 6°6
Post-monsoon oe 19°6 to 32°7 13°1

[18 ]

246 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

b. Soil surface temperature. The seasonal and hourly variation are
the highest at the soil surface. There is a well-defined peak of maxi-
mum temperature during all seasons. This occurs at 2 p.m. during
winter and hot weather, at 1 p.m. during monsoon, and between 12
noon and 1 p.m. during post-monsoon season; thereby showing that
the maximum temperature epoch for soil is generally two to three
hours ahead of the maximum temperature epoch of air. The range of
soil surface temperatures from 7 a.m. to 7 p.m. recorded during various
seasons is as follows :

RANGE (°C.) ACTUAL VARIATION (°C.)

Winter =; 11°9 to 39°0 et ie
Hot weather < 26-7-t0 55°) 28°8
Monsoon be 31°5 to 45°8 14-3
Post-monsoon Me 22,7 to49"3 26°6

Burrow temperature

In contrast to the air and soil surface temperatures, there is very
little hour-to-hour variation of temperatures inside the burrows during
the various seasons. The variation of temperature from season to
season is also considerably Jess at all depths. There is no well-defined
peak of maximum temperature inside the burrows except in the
monsoon and post-monsoon seasons, when a peak is noticed at 50 cm.
depth and corresponding to | p.m. Generally the burrow temperatures
tend to increase during the late afternoon, after 5 p.m. In winter the
burrow temperatures are not only higher during the late afternoon but
also at 7 a.m., thereby indicating that the burrow is probably uniform-
ly warmer during the night when air and surface temperatures fall con-
siderably, and the gerbille has not to encounter the chilly cold winter
night. It is further observed from Table II that in winter, the burrow
temperatures averaged over all depths are warmer than the normal air
temperature from 7 a.m. to 10 a.m. by 2°0 to 7:1°C., and warmer
than soil surface by 1:1 to 7°6°C. from 7 a.m. to 9 a.m., and by 3:7°C.
at 7 p.m. In the hot weather, the burrow temperatures are in the range
of 33°6 to 37-6 considering ali depths, whereas the soil surface temperatures
reach as high as 55°5°C. These features indicate clearly that the burrows
serve the gerbilles as air-conditioned chambers to avoid the high extremes
_ of temperatures noticed in the arid region. Very little variation with
respect to depth is noticed in the burrow temperatures. There is, how-
ever, a slight indication of temperature decrease with depth during
winter and hot weather periods and of increase with depth during the

[19]

241

ECO-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF INDIAN GERBILLE

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[20]

ECO-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF INDIAN GERBILLE

other seasons. The range of the day temperatures at various depths in
the burrows is given below for various seasons:

SLANT DEPTH WINTER HoT WEATHER MONSOON POST-MONSOON

2c: OF °c: 1 G.

50 cm. 19°9 to 21°1 35°2 to 37°6 28'5 to 34°3 24°6 to 25°7
: (1°2) (2°4) (3°8) (1°1)

100 cm. 19°1 to 20°5 33°6 to 35°2 27°6 to 35°3 27°9 to 28°7
(1°4) (1°6) Cie) (0°8)

150 cm. 19°2 to 20°7 33°9 to 35°4 32°9 to 35:8 30°4 to 31°3
7 (1°5) (1°5) (2°9) (0°9)

200 cm. 19°1 to 20°6 34:2, 10/353 —- 29°1 to 29'9
(1°5) (1°1) — (0°8)

243

It is interesting to note that the burrow temperatures which have
generally a small range, varying from 1 to 2°C., show a considerable
increase in range during the monsoon when the air and soil temperatures
have the minimum range. The increase in range inside the burrows
during this season may be attributed to the occasional flooding of. the
burrows with rain water. Table III gives the normal air temperatures
and the burrow temperature averaged for the four depths at the time of
maximum temperature epoch of the soil surface temperatures recorded
during various seasons. |

TABLE II

THE AIR AND BURROW TEMPERATURES AT THE MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE EPOCH
OF THE SOIL SURFACE DURING DIFFERENT SEASONS

Winter Hot Monsoon Post-
2p.m weather 1 p.m. | monsoon
2p.m. | 12 &1lp.m
(Gam | marge Mes ais MGs °C
| os ——————
Soil surface ee SEU A Sb) 45°8 49:3
Normal air aa 241 38°6 32°4 31°6
Burrow temperature averaged for
the four depths aa Ie 34°7 34°4 28°4
Difference between soil surface |
and average burrow tempera- |
ture te Ose 20.80 | LEA —20°9
Difference between soil surface |
and normal air temperature Sa 14°9 16°9 13-4 ey)

Table III shows that, at the time of maximum temperature epoch of
the soil surface temperature, burrows are cooler than the soil surface by
192° to 20:9°C. in various seasons except in the monsoon when the
difference is 11°4°C., whereas the air temperatures are less than the soil

p22]

244 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

surface temperatures by 13:4° during monsoon and from 14:9° to
17:7°C. during other seasons. This also indicates that the burrows
help the gerbilles in avoiding the extreme temperatures of the desert.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. P. C. Raheja, Director of the Institute, for
the interest he took throughout the progress of this work, and to
Dr. Pulak K. Ghosh, Animal Physiologist, and Dr. C. T. Abhichandani,
Soil Scientist, for suggestions and help.

SYNOPSIS

Hourly temperatures inside the burrow of the Indian Desert Gerbille,
Meriones hurrianae (Jerdon), were recorded at Jodhpur. It was found
that, at the time of maximum temperature epoch of the soil surface
temperature, the burrows are cooler than the soil surface by 19°2° to
20:9°C. in various seasons, except in monsoon when the difference is
11°4°C. only. Fluctuations of temperature inside the burrows are very
small. Thus, the burrows serve the gerbilles as air-conditioned
chambers to avoid the high extremes of temperatures noticed in the arid
regions.

REFERENCES

PeTTer, F. (1952): Note preliminaire SCHMIDT-NIELSEN, B., & SCHMIDT-
sur Pethologie 1’ ecologie de Psammomys NIELSEN, K. (1950): Evaporative water
obsesus Cretzschmar. Mammalia 26: loss indesert rodents. Ecology 31 : 75-85.
137-147. VORHIES, CHARLES T. (1945): Water

PRAKASH, ISHWAR (1962) : Ecology of requirements of desert animals in the
the gerbilles of the Rajasthan desert, southwest. Univ. Arizona Techn. Bull.
India. ibid. 26: 311-331. 107 : 487-525.

[23]

a a ee

Observations on the Maturation and
Spawning of the Brown Pomfret,
Parastromateus niger (Bloch) in
Saurashtra Waters

| T. E. SIVAPRAKASAM
Southern Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India, Madras

(With a plate)

INTRODUCTION

The biology of the Brown Pomfret, Parastromateus niger (Bloch),
has not been studied so far, though it forms a fishery of considerable
importance along all the Indian coast and a major fishery along that of
Saurashtra. Our knowledge on pomfrets is very meagre, being restricted
to the general accounts given by Chidambaram & Venkataraman (1946),
Moses (1947), Devanesan & Chidambaram (1948), and other fisheries
reports. Rege (1958) made a preliminary study on the biology of the
Silver Pomfret, Pampus argenteus (Bloch), in Bombay waters. De Jong’s
(1939) observations on the spawning habits of Stromateus niger in the
Java Sea is the only account available on this fish. The importance of
biological studies on these fish has been stressed by Gokhale (1960).
Detailed studies were, therefore, undertaken on the biology of P. niger
at Veraval on the Saurashtra coast during 1961-63. The present paper
deals with its spawning habits.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Samples were collected at weekly intervals from the gill-net catches
off Veraval. Some representative samples were also taken from Madh-
wad, Mangrol, and Porbandar. In all 620 fish were examined. Large
samples were available during September-November and April-May,
when the fish forms a fishery. During other months it is only landed
in small quantities, and during June-August fishing is called off because
of the south-west monsoon.

The fish were measured, weighed, and dissected. After noting the
sex and stage of maturity, the gonads were measured, weighed, and

246 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

preserved in 5% formalin for further examination. The spawning habits

were studied by direct observation on mature and spawning fish and

occurrence of juveniles, as well as by the indirect method of studying

the size-distribution of the ova in the ovary. Details of the method of

study and the discussions are given in different sections of the paper.
All lengths given relate to fork length unless otherwise stated.

STRUCTURE OF THE GONADS

The gonads could be distinguished as ovaries or testes in fish of
about 15 cm. and more in length. In fish below this size the gonads take
the form of a thin strip of tissue and are indistinguishable. The ovary
first becomes apparent as two small, compact lobes, wine-coloured and
united at the anterior end, and the testes as two thin, long strips of
tissue, white in colour. In both the ovary and the testes, the right lobe
is Shorter than and about half the length of the left in early stages ; they
become subequal later. In contrast to the condition found in most
perch-like fishes, the lobes of the gonads extend behind the cloaca on
the sides of the intestinal coils, so that the gonads open outside at the
anterior end. This condition may be the result of the dorso-ventral
deepening of the body, characteristic of the pomfrets.

CLASSIFICATION OF MATURITY STAGES

For the study of seasonal changes in the gonad condition, an arbi-
trary classification of the stages of maturity was made. These stages
of maturity, which correspond to the scale adopted by the International
Council for the Exploration of the Sea, were based mainly on the dia-
meter and extent of yolk formation in the ova in the case of females,
and the presence of milt and the extent of its response to pressure of the
testes in the case of males, as followed by Clark (1934) and Bowers &
Holliday (1961). They were, however, recognizable externally by such
features as colour, shape, and size. The various stages of maturity were
defined as follows :

FEMALES

Stage I. Ovaries thin, small piece of tissue, wine-coloured. Microscopic
transparent ova, largest ova 0°21 mm. in diameter, not visible
to naked eye. ;

Stage II. Ovaries with compact lobes, right lobe often shorter. than the left,
pale yellow in colour. Ova with traces of yolk, largest 0°32 mm.
in diameter, visible to naked eye. Includes also recovering
spent ovaries which are large, bag-like, and bloodshot.

Stage III. Ovaries large, yellow in colour. Ova large, semi-opaque, largest
0°42 mm. in diameter.

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc.

a
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Stage II
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Diameter of ova in m.d. (m.d. =0°021 mm.)
Brown Pomfret, Parastromateus niger (Bloch)
Ova-size distribution in various stages of maturity

MATURATION AND SPAWNING OF BROWN POMFRET 247

3 ; Md
Stage IV. Ovaries large, bright yellow in colour. Large ova completely
opaque, fully laden with yolk, largest 0°63 mm. in diameter. .

Stage V. Ovaries large and jelly-like, < speckled’ appearance due to large
transparent ova. Ova largest, maximum diameter 0°95 mm., still
retained inside the follicles.

Stage VI. Ovaries very much distended, ripe ova shed into the cavity of the
ovary and oozing out through the oviduct. :

Stage VII. Ovaries shrunken, bag-like, and bloodshot. A few large ova may
be present.

MALES

Stage I. Testes thin, long strip of tissue, white in colour.

Stage II. Testes slightly larger in size, compact, right lobe shorter than the
left, white in colour. Traces of milt in the central core. Also
includes spent-recovering, which are large and hard.

Stage III. Testes much longer. Transverse grooves and wavy margins appear.
Milt is being formed. .

Stage IV. Testes much larger, white in colour, wavy margins and transverse
grooves. Milt oozes out when pressed hard.

Stage V. Testes very long and broad, milky white in colour, turgid due to
milt, but not oozing.

Stage VI. Testes as above, but oozing milt.

Stage VII. Testes hard, contractéd and dull white in colour. W@pout any
milt.

MATURATION AND SIZE-FREQUENCY OF OVA

It is well known that the size distribution of the ova in a teleostean
Ovary is indicative of its spawning habits. A study of the ova-diameter
frequency in the ovaries of P. niger was therefore made to show the
maturation of ova through various stages and the spawning habits of
the fish, on the lines followed by Clark (1934), Hickling & Rutenberg
(1936), De Jong (1939), Prabhu (1956), and many others. Samples of
ova from ovaries preserved in formalin were spread out evenly on a
Slide. The diameters of the ova were measured without any selection
by means of a micrometer having a magnification of 1 m.d.=0:021 mm.
For determining the exact stage of maturity by the largest ova, only a
few ova were measured from each ovary. For the ova-diameter fre-
quency studies, three ovaries from each stage of maturity were taken
and 300 to 500 ova were measured from each. Ova below 5 m.d. were
disregarded except in stage J, as they were too many and evidently
immature. The measurements were grouped in intervals of 2 m.d.
and plotted against their percentage frequency. These curves of ova-
diameter frequencies are presented in the Plate.

Before going into the details of the study, it is necessary to describe
the development of the ova through the various stages of maturity to

248 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 62 (2)

spawning. The oocytes take their origin from ovigerous lamellae which
project into the ovarian cavity from all sides of the ovary. Several
batches of oocytes are produced every season and undergo a remarkable
process of maturation, which is accompanied by yolk formation and
increase in size. As maturation progresses, the minute clear and trans-
parent ova increase in size and the yolk granules are gradually added,
first around the nucleus and then towards the periphery. As yolk for-
mation advances the ova become opaque. Before being spawned, the
ova again become transparent and acquire an oil globule which aids in
floating on the sea.

Following Walford (1932) and Prabhu (1956), the various stages
of development of the ova can be conveniently classified as follows :

1. Immature: Minute, transparent ova with distinct nucleus and clear

cytoplasm, up to 0°21 mm. in diameter

2. Maturing : Small semi-opaque ova in which yolk laying has started but
is not yet complete, 0°21 to 0°42 mm. in diameter

3. Mature : Large opaque ova, full of yolk, 0:42 to 0°63 mm. in diameter
4. Ripe : Large, transparent ova with an ‘oil globule, about to be spawned,
0°63 to 0°95 mm. in diameter.
The size-distribution of ova in ovaries of stages I to V is plotted
in the Blate. In stage I, which is immature, there are only immature

eggs extending in diameter from 0 to 12 m.d. with a small mode at

10 m.d. indicating the separation of some eggs. As maturation pro-
gresses, this batch of eggs separates from the immature. stock,
characterized by gradual increase in size and formation of yolk around
the nucleus. This batch of eggs is represented by the mode b at 12 m.d.
separating from the general egg stock, a, in stage II. In stage III,
this process is carried further forward, with increase in size and yolk
formation, and the mode b is formed at 16 m.d. In stage IV, the mode
b at 24 m.d. represents the mature eggs, large, fully yolked, and
opaque. Thus, there is only one batch of eggs, distinctly separated
from the general egg stock. There is no indication of any other batch
of maturing eggs. In stage V, the mature eggs increase very much in
size and become ‘ripe’, transparent with an oil globule. These ripe
eges are represented by the mode b, extending from 30 to 44 m.d.
and are about to be spawned during this season. All the mature
eggs have already become ripe, and a fresh batch of maturing eggs
will be produced from the general egg stock probably only after the
spawning season.

Thus, in the process of maturation, only one batch of eggs separates

from the general egg-stock and undergoes maturation to be spawned
during the spawning season. As this single batch of mature ova
is distinct from the general egg stock, individuals of this species have a

single spawning season in a year, restricted to a short and definite

MATURATION AND SPAWNING OF BROWN POMFRET 249

period. De Jong’s (1939) observations on the spawning habits of
Stromateus niger in the Java Sea corroborate these observations. Data
on the distribution of different stages of maturity and occurrence
of juvenile fish also prove this view, but the spawning season for the
species as a whole is considerably protracted because all the fish do not
spawn at the same time. ,

SPAWNING SEASON AND SPAWNING GROUNDS

The spawning season was also determined by direct observation of
the condition of the gonads during different months, and by the
occurrence of juveniles. The maturity-distribution of females and
males during 1962-63 is given in Table I. The data for 1961-62 give
a similar picture and hence are not presented here.

The Table shows that, among females, early stages I and II occur
throughout the period. Mature fish in stages III and IV start appearing
in April and continue till November. Ripe fish (stage V) were recorded
only in September, but actual spawners (stage VI) were found in
September and October. As there was no fishing during June-July,
we do not have data for these months. But the occurrence of spent-
recovering fish in August indicates that spawning has already started in
July. Spawning is continued till October, with the peak of activity
in August-September. |

Maturity-distribution among the males presents a similar picture.
The early stages occur throughout the period. Stages III and IV
occurred during April to November. Stage V was recorded in Septem-
ber. Oozing males (stage VI) were not recorded, but spent males were
recorded in October. This also suggests that the spawning period
extends from July to October.

Although individual spawning is restricted to a short and definite
period, as seen from the ova-diameter frequency studies, the spawning
period of the species as a whole is protracted over a period of four
months. ;

Juvenile pomfrets first appear in September, and occur in good num-
bers in the trawl nets during October to December. This corroborates
the spawning period determined for the species. The wide range in the
size of the juveniles, from 3 to 15 cm., recorded during November is
further evidence of protracted spawning.

Mature fish in stage IV or above and also juvenile fish were recorded
throughout a 100-mile stretch along the Saurashtra coast from Diu Head
(Madhwad) to Porbandar. This indicates that the fish spawn through-
out this stretch of coast. A few females in ‘running’ condition (stage
VI) were recorded off Veraval at 15-20 fathoms. The ripe ova which
oozed out from them had a mean diameter of 0°83 mm. (range:
0:74-0:90 mm.) and the oil globule 0°22 mm. (range: 0:21-0:23 mm.).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

256

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MATURATION AND SPAWNING OF BROWN POMFRET 251

While the adult fish are pelagic in habit, the juveniles appear to be
demersal, as they are caught only in the trawl-nets and bottom-set nets.

SEX RATIO

The distribution of sexes in commercial fish landings during 1962-63
is given in Table If. Fish below 15 cm. in length, i.e. indeterminates_
were landed in very small quantities. Out of the total 409 sexed, 195
were males and 214 females, showing a more or less equal distribution
of the sexes. In the 15-25 cm. group, males and females were more or
less equal in number. Males were predominant, about twice as many
as the females in the 25-35 cm. group. Females were remarkably
numerous, about four times the males, in the next size-group 35-45 cm.
In the last size-group, 45-55 cm., there were no males at all. As regards
the distribution of the sexes from month to month, females predominat-
ed during August to October, during November to March the sexes were
more or less equal in number but irregular in their pattern, and during
April-May males were predominant.

TABLE II

SEX RATIO IN VARIOUS SIZE-GROUPS OF Parastromateus niger IN
COMMERCIAL FISH LANDINGS

Size-Groups
Total

istos) cant 025235 cms 52450 ona : ASS ein!

So ee tt 2 ae oP S28 oa 90

——_— —=-$ —_________— — = Ase

1962, Aug. — 4 ii 6 14 Ome. 2 10° -* 423
Sept. as es 6h 0 his 147
Orem FI at 1g. |, OF yh ha. 39
Nov =) 1 12 ») ik 3) — 18 15
Dec 48 44 6 1 1 0 — 35 45

h1963, Jan. HoT NG TO 3 OF aac | — 197 = 10
Feb. 138% a. 16 —- — — 13: 16
March — See ne nea 4 — Oa 2G
April — 23h 4 e710 — DAs aA
May — Os 4 Less 22 ee 10 2 6

Sex ratio over
the total TAS 169 <1 100): 49) Ai ys. Ot OMe 5 NOS S214
period

252 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

It was pointed out earlier that the fish spawn during July to October,
In accordance with some of the classical observations on other species
(Van Oosten 1938 ; Nikolsky 1963), in P. niger also the males appear to
migrate to the spawning grounds earlier than the females, as indicated
by their predominance during April-May. During August-October
which is the spawning period, females outnumber the males. It is also
found that males are predominant over females in the first size group,
become less in number in the next group, and are completely absent in
the last group.

SIZE AT FIRST MATURITY-

The size at first maturity, an important tool in fishery management
(Nikolsky 1963), was determined only approximately.

Fish measuring below 15 cm. were indeterminates and those between
15-25 cm. immatures. Unfortunately, enough fish were not available in
the group 25-30 cm. as the selectivity of the gill-nets was rather high.
Most of the fish landed were above 30cm. However, the percentages of
mature fish in the various centimetre groups during the spawning season
were calculated separately for females and males. The length of the
smallest fish with spent gonads was determined. From these observa-
tions it was concluded that most of the females attain first maturity at.
32 cm. and the males at 30 cm.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |

Tam thankful to Dr. S. Jones, Director, Central Marine Fisheries
Research Institute, Mandapam, for suggesting the problem and provid-
ing all the necessary facilities. My thanks are also due to Shri
M. V. Pai and Dr. M. J. Pradhan for their help in this study.

SYNOPSIS

The maturation and spawning habits of the Brown Pomfret, Parastro-
' mateus niger (Bloch), have been studied for the first time. The study was
made at Veraval, Saurashtra, where the fish forms a major fishery. —
The structure of the gonads, and the stages of maturity have been _
described. The spawning habits were studied by the ova-diameter
frequency method, and the distribution of various stages of maturity in
time, and the occurrence of juveniles. |

The fish has a single, restricted spawning in a year, but the spawning ~ |
season is considerably protracted because all the fish do not spawn at
the same time. Spawning occurs during July to October in the coastal
waters off Saurashtra from Diu to Porbandar, The size at first maturity

MATURATION AND SPAWNING OF BROWN POMFRET

253

has been calculated approximately. The sex-ratio in various size-
groups during different months is discussed.

REFERENCES

Bowers, A. B., & HoLiipay, F. G. T.
(1961): Histological changes in the gonad
associated with the reproductive cycle of
the herring. Marine Research No. 6.

CHIDAMBARAM, K., & VENKATARAMAN,
R. S. (1946) : Tabular statement of the
natural history of certain marine food
fishes of the Madras Presidency-West
Coast. Govt. Press, Madras.

CLaRK, F. N. (1934): Maturity of
California Sardine (Sardina coerulea)
determined by ova diameter measure-
ments. Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish.
Bull. 4: 1-49.

DE Jonc, J. K. (1939) : A preliminary
investigation of the spawning habits of
some fishes of the Java sea. Treubia 17:
307-327.

DEVANESEN, D.W., & CHIDAMBARAM, K.
(1948) : The common food fishes of the
Madras’ Presidency. Govt. Press,
Madras.

GOKHALF, S. V. (1960): Need for.

fisheries research in Gujarat. In ‘ The
Fishing Industry of Gujarat’, Ahmeda-
bad.

HICKLING, C. F., & RUTENBERG, E.
(1936): The ovary as an indicator of
spawning period of fishes. J. Mar. biol.
Assoc. U.K. 21 : 311-317.

Moses, S. T. (1947) : Baroda Fisheries.
Bull. No. XI, Dept. of Fisheries, Baroda.

NIKOLSskKy, G. V. (1963) : The Ecology
of Fishes. Academy Press, London.

PRABHU, M.S. (1956) : Maturation of
intra-ovarian eggs and spawning periodi-
cities in some fishes. Indian J. Fish. 3
(1) : 59-90.

Rece, M. S. (1958): A study or the
Stromateid fishes of Bombay. Ph.D.
Thesis, University of Bombay.

VAN OOSTEN, J. (1938): The age,
growth, sexual maturity and sex ratio of
the common white fish, Coregonus clupea-
formis (Mitchill) of Lake Huron. Pap.
Mich. Acad. Sci., Arts and Lett., 24 (I):
195-221.

WALFORD, L.A. (1932) : The California
Barracuda (Sphyraena argentea). Calif.
Div. Fish and Game, Fish. Bull. 37:
1-120.

Notes on a Colony of the Whiskered
Tern [Chlidonias hybrida (Pallas)] in
Delhi, with comments on its
Breeding Status in India

JULIAN P, DONAHUE

Department of Entomology, Michigan State University,
East Lansing, Michigan, USA.

AND
USHA GANGULI

10 Cavalry Lines, Delhi 7

(With a map)

During the late spring and early summer of 1962 we noticed an
increasing number of Whiskered Terns [Chlidonias hybrida (Pallas)] on
an extensive jheel (expanse of shallow water) near the village of Jhatikra,
about 20 miles south-west of Delhi, in Delhi State. One bird was seen

on 27 May, seven on 16 June, over 30 on 2 July, several on 5 July, and, |

on 17 July, we located the colony, thus establishing the first record of
this species breeding in Delhi.

Our efforts to obtain the services of a water-worthy craft were futile,
so we observed the colony from the shore with binoculars and a telescope.
Several young, usually in twos, were sitting on a mass of vegetation
about a quarter mile from the shore, while adults were scooping small
fish from the water (rather than diving for them) and transferring them,
while hovering, to the calling young sitting on the aquatic plants. Once,
we saw a young bird catch its own fish, drop it, re-catch it, drop it again,
and, with seeming resignation, land to receive a fish from an adult. We
also saw adults carrying bits of vegetation, obviously in the process of
nest construction on a large mat of floating vegetation about half a mile
from shore.

On 9 September 1962 UG revisited the jhee/, when large numbers of
terns were seen feeding fledglings. One young bird was seen to call and
stamp its feet at the sight of an adult approaching with a fish. Adult

i: ra ge .

i
we
Pp) Maticy ee ee nye See al eee acetey o .
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ie
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‘

JOURN. BomMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc.

scale of miles
100 200 300

80° 90°

ECD Des eDI Be ie DET yo Ne Be ee Be ke PAD

Areas in the Indian region where the Whiskered Tern has bred.

THE WHISKERED TERN AND ITS BREEDING STATUS IN INDIA 255

birds were still bringing fish to young at dusk. Some adults had appa-
rently begun to lose their breeding plumage, since their bellies were no
longer solid black, but streaked with white.

The call of the young, when adults are approaching with food, is a
plaintive chee, chee. The adults apparently had two calls: a cherrk on
a slightly falling scale and a harsh kreek on a slightly rising scale.

In mid-July 1963, UG again visited the jheel, but saw no sign of
Whiskered Terns, although she did see birds in breeding plumage else-
where in Delhi in September. In 1963, the monsoon did not begin until
29 July—one of the latest dates of the century. Consequently, water
levels were very low. It is possible that the birds bred later, after the
water level had risen, or they may not have bred at all in 1963.

Water levels were too high to permit observations in 1964.

OTHER KNOWN BREEDING LOCALITIES IN INDIA

The several subspecies of the Whiskered Tern breed in south Europe,
Africa, Iraq, India, south China, Malay Peninsula, Java, Celebes,
Moluccas, New Guinea, and Australia (Alexander 1955 ; Ripley 1961 ;
Ticehurst et al. 1922, 1926). In India this bird is known to breed only
in Kashmir and eastward through the Gangetic Plain to Assam. Non-
breeding birds are seen throughout India and Ceylon (Ripley 1961;
Henry 1955).

By far the most observed population is that occupying several lakes
near the resort city of Srinagar, and elsewhere in the Vale of Kashmir
(Baker 1935; Bates 1923, 1925; Bates & Lowther 1952; Davidson
1898 ; Lowther 1944; Osmaston 1927; Phillips 1946; Wilson 1899),
The exploitation of the eggs in Kashmir is briefly mentioned by Cott
(1953).

We have been unable to locate definite breeding records for West
Pakistan, although Ripley (1961) says it breeds there. Hume (1873)
got second-hand information from local fishermen that it bred during the
monsoon in Sind, but this has yet to be confirmed, Waite (1948)
observed several of these birds on the Kallar Kahar Lake in the Punjab
Salt Range, but never found any nests. These two localities are
represented by question-marks on the distribution map.

Four colonies have been observed in Uttar Pradesh. Lowther (1944,

1949) has mentioned a colony in Etawah District, while Field (1922)

reports that the Whiskered Tern bred on certain jJheels in Gonda District

in August. Baker (1935) also mentions that eggs were taken by Gill in
Oudh, of which Gonda District was a part. Jesse (1899, 1903) reports
that this bird was common in Lucknow District, where it bred during

August and September, but he felt that the population was decreasing

256 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

because of drainage of the jheels. Baker (1935) says that fresh eggs
were taken in September in Fyzabad District.

Although Lowther (1944, 1949) said this bird bred in a few Bihar
jheels, he specifically mentioned only four colonies in Dhanbad District, of
which one colony was active for only a single year. The other Bihar
record found was that of Inglis (1899a, 1899b, 1903), who reported
breeding activity in Darbhanga District in July and August. In August
1899 the birds were apparently absent and failed to breed where they
had bred the year before.

The colonies east of those above are presumably of the subspecies
C. hybrida javanica (Horsfield), although this population has not been
accurately delimited (and Ripley 1961 does not mention it).

In East Pakistan Whiskered Terns have been found breeding in
Khulna and Sylhet (Baker 1935). Baker (1899, 1935) said he saw many
colonies in Assam, but specifies only those in Cachar and North Cachar
(the latter is now the district of United Mikir and North Cachar Hills).
Baker (1935) said that the birds in Silchar (Cachar District) normally
bred from late June through August, but bred earlier if the rains were
early or heavy.

According to Smythies (1953) and Stanford (1946), there is no record
of the Whiskered Tern breeding in Burma, although it does breed in

Malaya (Smythies 1953). Hopwood (1912) believes it may breed in
Arakan.

Mention must also be made of a paper by Hewetson (1956), which
says that Whiskered Terns breed on sandbanks in Madhya Pradesh in
March and April, before the monsoon. Because this bird is only known
to nest on floating marsh vegetation, and because our attempts to
substantiate this record were futile, this observation should remain
questionable uritil it can be verified.

DISCUSSION

Some colonies of Whiskered Terns are apparently unstable, for birds
will be breeding on a jheel one year, but not the next (Inglis 1899b ;
Lowther 1949). Evidence indicates that nesting (excluding Kashmir) is
timed to coincide with the south-west monsoon rains, from June to
September, so local water conditions may affect nesting success. It
seems, however, that drainage of the jheels and raids by egg-collectors
would be major factors affecting the abundance of the species. Baker
(1935) says that, despite the fact that large numbers of eggs were eaten
by villagers in Silchar, the birds continued to lay eggs repeatedly in the
robbed nests.

1 We might interject that the similar Blackbellied Tern, Sterna acuticauda
J, E. Gray, does nest on sandbanks.—AuTHors.

THE WHISKERED TERN AND ITS BREEDING STATUS IN INDIA 257

It is obvious that a study needs to be made of the breeding behaviour —
and ecological requirements of the Whiskered Tern, so that the necessary
steps may be taken to protect this lovely marsh dweller. Perhaps, if the
reproductive capacity is high, seasons may be set aside when eggs may
be taken, to be followed by a period when the nests are protected, to
ensure the successful rearing of at least one brood.

Our knowledge of the breeding range of this bird can certainly be
enhanced if the marshes and jhee/s of northern India and West Pakistan
are observed for activity during the monsoon. For the Delhi colony we
were not sure when nesting commenced, how long the young birds were
fed by the adults, why there was an apparent range of ages of young
birds, or how large the colony was. Here, as in other places, people
may raid the nests to obtain eggs.

The authors will be most happy to receive additional! records of esta-
blished breeding colonies of the Whiskered Tern in India.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.

We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Sélim Ali and Rollin
H. Baker in the preparation of this paper.

SYNOPSIS

A report is presented on the recently discovered colony of Whiskered
Terns in Delhi, India, along with a map and a description of all other
known breeding localities of this species in India and Pakistan.

REFERENCES

ALEXANDER, W. B. (1955): Birds of
the Ocean. 2nd ed. Putnam, London.

BAKER, E. C. Stuart (1899): The
birds of North Cachar. Part X. J.
: Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12 : 486-510.

——— — (1935): The Nidification of
Birds of the Indian Empire 4. Taylor
and Francis, London.

Bates, R.S. P. (1923) : Notes on Hugh
Whistler’s ‘A contribution to the orni-
thology of Cashmere’ in Vol. XXVIII,
No. 4. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 29:

798-802.

— (1925): Birds’ nesting with a
camera in India. Part IV. The Dal Lake
and Hokra. ibid. 30 : 600-609.

———— (1929): A treed- bed in the Dal
Lake, Kashmir. ibid. 33: 656-666.

— & LowrTuer, E. H. N.
n1952)-: Breeding Birds of Kashmir.
Oxford University Press, London.

Cotr, HuGH B. (1953): The explot-
tation of wild birds for their_eggs. Ibis
95 : 409-449, 643-675 ; 96: 129-149.

Davipson, J. (1898): A short trip to
Kashmir. ibid. 4 (7th ser.) : 1-42.

FIELD, F. (1922) : Rough list and notes
on the birds found breeding in the Gonda
District, Oudh. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 28 : 753-772.

Henry, G. M. (1955): A Guide to the
Birds of Ceylon. Oxford University
Press, London.

HEWETSON, C. E. (1956) : Observations
on the bird life of Madhya Pradesh. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53: 595-645.

Hopwoop, Cyrit (1912): A list of
birds from Arakan. ibid. 21: 1196-1221.

Hume, ALLAN O. (1873): Contribu-
tions to the ornithology of India. Sindh,
No. II. Stray Feathers 1: 91-289.

258

INGLIs, C. M. (1899a) : Breeding of the
Whiskered Tern (Hydrochelidon hybrida)
in the Darbhanga District, Tirhoot. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12: 414.

———— (1899b) : The Whiskered Tern
(Hydrochelidon hybrida). ibid. 12 : 774.

—— (1903): The birds of the
Madhubani sub-division of the Dar-
bhanga District, Tirhut, with notes on
species noticed elsewhere in the district.
Part VI. ibid. 15 : 70-77.

JESSE, WILLIAM (1899) : Birds’ nesting
in and around Lucknow.-No. III. Ibis
5 (7th ser.) : 344-351.

[The title is punctuated exactly as in
the original JPD + UG]

———— (1903): A list of the birds
of Lucknow. Part IV. ibid. 3 (8th ser.) :
148-178.

LowTHer, E.H.N. (1944) : Notes on
some Indian birds. VIII. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 44: 355-373.

———— (1949): A Bird Photographer
in India. Oxford University Press,
London.

OsMASTON, B. B. (1927) : Notes on the
birds of Kashmir. Part Il. J. Bombay

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

nat. Hist. Soc. 32: 134-153.

PHILLIPS, B. T. (1946) : A bird photo-
grapher’s musings from Kashmir.
Part II. ibid. 46: 486-500.

RIp.ey II, SIDNEY DILLON (1961): A
Synopsis of the Birds of India and
Pakistan. Bombay Natural History
Society, Bombay.

SMYTHIES, BERTRAM E. (1953) : The
Birds of Burma. 2nd (rev. )edition. Oliver
and Boyd, Edinburgh.

STANFORD, J. K. (1947) : Some sugges-
tions for field ornithologists in post-war
Burma. Part I. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 46 : 478-486.

TICEHURST, CLAUD B., BUXTON, P. A.,
& CHEESMAN, R.E. (1922) : The birds of
Piso otis: Part IV. ibid. 28: 937-
956.

——-——, Cox, PERCy, & CHEESMAN,
R.E. (1926) : Additional notes on the
avifauna of Iraq. ibid. 31 : 91-119.

WalTE, H. W. (1949): The birds of
the Punjab Salt Range (Pakistan). ibid.
48 : 93-117.

WILSON, N. F. T. (1899): Nesting in
Kashmir. ibid. 12: 634-641.

On a collection of Bryophytes made
by the Indian Cho Oyu Expedition,
1958°

B. M. WADHWA? AND J. N. VOHRA
Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta

In 1958 an Indian mountaineering expedition was sent to scale the
world’s sixth highest peak, Cho Oyu in east Nepal, and to make scientific
observations particularly in the natural sciences. Shri R. S. Rao, at
that time Regional Botanist, Botanical Survey of India, Eastern Circle,
Shillong, was deputed to accompany the expedition and made a good
collection of higher plants and cryptogams.

Out of the cryptogams, the lichens were worked out by. Dr.
D. D. Awasthi (1960). The bryophytic collection, which was sent to
us for identification, comprised 37 packets. Except in a few cases,
there was no mixture of mosses in the collection. The specimens were
collected from an altitude of about 1905-5185 m., which corresponds to ~
the temperate and alpine zones of the Himalayas, where bryophytes
abound in variety. The variety is well reflected in the occurrence of 36
species in this collection of 37 packets. Rhacomitrium heterostichum
(Hedw.) Brid. is a new record for Nepal and the Himalayas.

In enumerating the mosses, Brotherus (1924-25) is followed, and the
nomenclature has been made up-to-date on the basis of Wijk et al. (1959,
1962). For each taxon, the following data are given: habit, habitat,
locality, altitude, field number, and date of collection.

_ The specimens are deposited in the Herbarium of the Headquarters
Organization, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. :

ENUMERATION
Mosses
DITRICHACEAE

Garckea comosa (Doz. et Molk.) Wijk et Marg. in Taxon 9: 190,
1960. Grimmia comosa Doz. et Molk. in Ann. Sc. Nat. Bot., ser. 3, 2:
304, 1844. Garckea phascoides C. Muell. in Bot. Zeit. 3 : 865, 1845.

1A paper entitled ‘ The Indian Cho Oyu Expedition, 1958 : Observations of a
Botanist Member’, by Seshagiri Rao Rolla, appears on pp. 400-9 of Vol. 60 (2) of
the Journal.—Eps.

* Present address : Botanica] Survey of India, 10 Chatham Line, Allahabad.

260 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

Lax tufts, yellowish brown, on moist soil. Pangboche to Theng-
poche, 3965 m. Rolla 13832, 28 April 1958.

DICRANACEAE

Campylopodium khasianum (Griff.) Paris, Ind. Bryol. 237, 1894.
Dicranum khasianum Griff. in Calcutta J. Nat. Hist. 2: 496, 1842.

Small, greenish brown, dense tufts along rocky moist crevices below
Rhododendron lepidotum bushes. Pambrchi-Mingbo, 4100 m. Rolla
13752, 20 April 1958.

Dicranodontium attenuatum (Mitt.) Wils. ex Jaeg. in Ber. S. Gall.
Nathurw. Ges. 1877-78 : 380, 1880. Dicranum attenuatum Mitt. in J.
Linn. Soc. Bot. Suppl. 1 : 22, 1859. |

Dense, silky, yellowish green, tufts along moist rocky crevices below
Rhododendron lepidotum bushes. Pambrchi-Mingbo, 4100 m. Rolla
13754B, 20 April 1958. It was in association with Rhocomitrium hete-
rostichum (Hedw.) Brid. :

Dicranodontium uncinatum (Harv.) Jaeg. in Ber. S. Gall. Naturw.
Ges. 1877-78 : 381, 1880. Thysanomitrium uncinatum Harv. in Hook.
Icon, Pl. Rar. t. 22, 1836. et in Lond. Jour. Bot. 2: 6, 1840.

Soft, silky, pale green cushions on Rhododendron campanulatum,
Shete-Jumbesi, 3500 m. - Rolla 13688A, 6 April 1958. It was in
‘mixture with Plagiothecium nemorale (Mitt.) Jaeg.

Paraleucobryum enerve (Thed.) Loeske. in Hedwigia 47: 171, 1908.
Dicranum enerve Thed. in Hartm. Handb. Skand. FI. ed. 5. 393, 1849.

Lax cushions along rocky moist crevices below Rhododendron lepi-
dotum bushes. Pambrchi-Mingbo, 4100 m. Rolla 13749B. 20 April
1958. It was in association with Dicranum bonjeanii De Not. forma.

Symblepharis vaginata (Hook.) Wijk et Marg. in Taxon 8: 75, 1959,

Didymodon vaginatus Hook. Icon. PI. t. 18, fig. 4, 1836.

association with Dicranum crispifolium C. Muell.

Dicranum bonjeanii De Not. in Lisa, Elenco Muschi Torino 29, 1837. |
Yellowish green, close tufts along moist rocky crevices below Rhodo- |
dendron lepidotum. Pambrchi-Mingbo, 4100 m. Rolla 13749A, 20 April |

1958.

Dicranum crispifolium C. Muell. in Bot. Zeit. 22 : 349, 1864.
: Lax tufts, pale green, along moist rocky crevices. Pambrchi-Mingbo,
4100 m. Rolla 13757A, 20 April 1958.

Dense, close, pale green cushions along moist rocky crevices, —
Pambrchi-Mingbo, 4100 m. Rolla 13757B, 20 April 1958. It was in —

BRYOPHYTES ‘COLLECTED BY INDIAN CHO OYU EXPEDITION 261

Dicranum himalayanum Mitt. in J. Linn, Soc. Bot. Suppl. 1: 14, 1859,

Tall tufts felted below with brown tomentum on Rhododendron
bushes, also on moist soil near water ditches. Shete-Jumbesi, 3500 m.,
Pambrchi-Mingbo, 4100 m., Lhenjo-Mozamba,Lake, 5030 m. Rolla
13685A, 13755, 13908. 6 and 20 April and 12 May 1958.

Dicranoloma fragile Broth. in Nat. Pfl., ed. 2, 10: 209, 1924.
Golden-brown, robust tufts along rocky moraine. Lobucha-Gorashep,
5030 m. Rolla 13790, 24 April 1958.

POTTIACEAE

Eucladium verticillatum (Brid.) B.S. G. Bryol. Eur. 1:9, 40, 1846.
Weisia verticillata Brid. Sp. M. 1: 656, 1801.

Small cushions along dry soil and rocky slopes. Dole-Namche
Bazar, 4050 m. Rolla 13958, 16 May 1958.

GRIMMIACEAE

Grimmia ovalis (Hedw.) Lindb. in Act. Soc. Sc. Fenn. 10: 75, 1871.
Dicranum ovale Hedw. Spec. Musc. 140, 1801. Grimmia commutata
Hueb. Musc. Germ. 185, 1833. G. ovata Web. et Mohr, Naturh. Reise
Schwedens 132, 1804.

Compact, hoary cushions on rocks all along the track. Lobuche-

Gorashep, 5050 m., Gorashep, 5340 m. Rolla 13789 and 13796, 24 and

eee

— 25 April 1958.

Rhacomitrium fuscescens Wils. in Kew J. Bot. 9 : 324, 1857,
Lax, brownish green tufts on rock. Thengpochu-Porcha, 3965 m.
Rolla 13846, 29 April 1958.

Rhacomitrium heterostichum (Hedw.) Brid. Bryol. Univ. 1: 214, 1826.

Trichostomum heterostichum Hedw. M. Frond. 2: 70, t.25, 1801.

Dense, dark green, many-branched tufts along moist rocky crevices
below Rhododendron lepidotum bushes. Pambrchi-Mingbo, 4100 m.
Rolla 13754A, 20 April 1958. It is a new record for Nepal and the
Himalayas.

Rhacomitrium himalayanum (Mitt.) Jaeg. Ad. 1.: 375, 1872. Grimmia
himalayana Mitt. in J. Linn. Soc. Bot. Suppl. 1: 45, 1859.

Loose, many-branched, hoary tufts along moist rocky crevices below
Rhododendron sp. Pambrchi-Mingbo, 4100 m. Rolla 13751, 20 April
1958.

_ Rhacomitrium javanicum Doz. et Molk. in Zollinger Syst. Verzeichn.
1:25 et 32, 1854.

262. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

Erect or decumbent dark green tufts on rocks. Thengpochu-Porcha,
3965 m. Rolla 13845, 29 April 1958.

BRYACEAE

Bryum tibetanum Mitt. in J. Linn. Soc. Bot. Suppl. 1 : 72, 1859.
_ Small cushions along moist soil of Rebno Lake. Lhenjo-Mozamba

Lake, 5030 m. Rolla 13914, 12 May 1958.

Bryum trachyrhizon C. Muell. in Par. Ind. Bryol. Suppl. 74, 1900.

Dense cushions along moist rocky crevices below Rhododendron
lepidotum bushes. Pambrchi-Mingbo, 4100 m. Rolla 13753, 20 April
1958.

Bryum turbinatum (Hedw.) Turn. Musc. Hib. 127, 1804. Mnium
turbinatum Hedw. Spec. Musc. 191, 1801.

Small tufts or cushions along the running stream of Chokkola.
Thaparma-Pheriche, 4200 m. Rolla 13772A. 21 April 1958. It was in
association with Philonotis lutea Mitt.

BARTRAMIACEAE

Philonotis lutea Mitt. in J. Linn. Soc. Bot. Suppl. 1 : 63, 1859.

Tall tufts, felted below with brown tomentum, along running stream
of Chokkola. Thaparma-Pheriche, 4200 m. Rolla 13772B, 21 April
1958.

HOOKERIACEAE

Orontobryum hookeri (Mitt.) Fleisch. in Nov. Guinea 12, Bot. Livr.
2: 125, 1914. Stereodon hookeri Mitt. in J. Linn. Soc. Bot. Suppl.
1: 114, 1859.

Wide, close, brownish green patches on Rhododendron sp. Shete-
Jumbesi, 3500 m. Rolla 13685B, 6 April 1958. -

THUIDIACEAE |

Thuidium philibertii Limpr. in Laubm. Deutschl. 2 : 835, 1895. |
Dense, reddish brown carpets on moist shady soil below Juniperus |
bushes. Pambrchi-Mingbo, 4100 m. Rolla 13748B, 20 April 1958. It |
was in association with Ectropothecium sikkimense (Ren. et Card.) Ren. |
et Card.

Actinothuidium hookeri (Mitt.) Broth. in Nat. Pfl. 1 (3): 1020, 1908.
Leskea hookeri Mitt. in J. Linn, Soc. Bot. Suppl. 1: 132, 1859. - |

BRYOPHYTES COLLECTED BY INDIAN CHO OYU EXPEDITION — 263

Dense, brownish green carpets on Rhododendron campanulatum Shete-
Jumbesi, 3500 m. Rolla 13687, 6 April 1958.

AMBLYSTEGIACEAE

Cratoneuron filicinum (Hedw.) Spruce, Cat. Musc. Amaz. And. 21,
1867. Hypnum filicinum Hedw. Spec. Musc. 285, 1801.

Loose, golden-green carpets along moist soil near water-fall. Namche
Bazar-Manjo, 3660 m. Rolla 13994A, 26 May 1958.

Drepanocladus uncinatus (Hedw.) Warnst. in Beih. Bot. Centralbl.
13: 402, 417, 1903. Hypnum uncinatum Hedw. Spec. Musc. 289, 1801.

Lax, golden-green carpets along moist rocky crevices below Rhodo-
dendron sp. Pambrchi-Mingbo, 4100 m. Rolla 13750 and 13756, 20 April
1958.

BRACHY THECIACEAE

Brachythecium buchanani (Hook.) Jaeg. in Ber. S. Gall. Naturw. Ges.
1876-77 : 341, 1878. Hypnum buchanani Hook. in Trans. Linn. Soc.
9 : 320, t. 28, fig. 3, 1808. .

Loose, golden-green mats along rocky crevices. Chule-Lhenju,
4720 m. Rolla 13901, 11 May 1958. d

ENTODONTACEAE

Entodon rubicundus (Mitt.) Jaeg. in Ber. S. Gall. Naturw. Ges. 1876-
77: 285, 1878. Stereodon rubicundus Mitt. in J. Linn. Soc. Suppl.
1: 108, 1859.

Dense, brownish green mats on rock. Namche Bazar-Thanu, 3580 m.
Rolla 13865, 5 May 1958.

PLAGIOTHECIACEAE

Plagiothecium nemorale (Mitt.) Jaeg. Ad. 2: 517, 1880. Stereodon
nemoralis Mitt. in J. Linn. Soc. Bot. Suppl. 1: 104, 1859.

Dense, silky mats on the bark of Rhododendron campanulatum,
Shete-Jumbesi 3500 m. Rolla 13688B, 6 April 1958.

SEMATOPHY LLACEAE

~ Sematophyllum tristiculum (Mitt.) Jaeg. Ad. 2: 458, 1880. Stereodon
tristiculus Mitt. in J. Linn. Soc. Bot. Suppl. 1 : 102, 1859.

- Dull green, loose tufts, submerged and along the banks of ice cold
lake, Lhenjo-Mozamba Lake, 5185 m. Rolla 13912, 12 May 1958.

264 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 62 (2)
HYPNACEAE

Hypnum revolutum (Mitt.) Jaeg. Ad. 2 : 585, 1880. Stereodon revo-
lutus Mitt. in J. Linn. Soc. Bot. Suppl. 1 : 97, 1859.

Loose, brownish green carpet along dry soil and rocky slope. Dole-
Namche Bazar, 4050 m. Rolla 13957, 16 May 1958.

Ectropothecium sikkimense Ren. et Card. in Bull. Soc. R. Bot.
Belg. 41(1) : 109, 1905.

Close, intricate mats of yellowish green colour on moist shady soil
below Juniperus bushes. Pambrchi-Mingbo, 4100 m. Rolla 13748A,
20 April 1958. }

POLY TRICHACEAE

Lyellia crispa R. Br. in Trans. Linn. Soc. 12 : 562, 1819.
Loose, brownish green tufts below Juniperus bushes with dried
capsules. Thengpochu-Porcha, 3965 m. Rolla 13847, 29 April 1958.

Pogonatum hexagonum Mitt. in J. Linn. Soc. Bot. Suppl. 1 : 152,
1859.

Dense, dull green tufts on soil amongst boulders. Jumbesi-
Takshindo, 3050 m. Rolla 13691, 7 April 1958.

Pogonatum microstomum (R. Br.) Brid. Bryol. Univ. 2: 745, 1827.
Polytrichum microstomum R. Br. in Trans. Linn. Soc. 12 : 569, 1819.

Loose, dark green tufts on moist soil. Solakumbu. Rolla 13826,
27 April 1958. |

LIVER WORTS

Marchantia nepalensis Lehm. et Lindenb. in Lehm. Pug. 4: 10, 1832.
Thallose liverworts on moist soil along small water-fall. Those-
Bhander, 1905 m. Rolla 13633, 4 April 1958.

Herberta sp.
Leafy liverwort, greyish black on Rhododendron sp. Shete-Jumbesi,
3500 m. Rolla 13684, 6 April 1958.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to Dr. H. Santapau, Director, Botanical
Survey of India, for his kind interest and encouragement. They are
indebted to Shri R. S. Rao, Regional Botanist, Western Circle, Poona,
for putting at their disposal this valuable collection, and to the autho-
rities of the British Museum (Nat, Hist.), London, for confirming some
of the identifications,

BRYOPHYTES COLLECTED BY INDIAN CHO OYU EXPEDITION — 265

REFERENCES

AwastTHI, D. D. (1960) : On a collec- Wik, R. V.D., MARGADANT, W. D.,
tion of Macrolichens by the Indian & FLorscuutz, P. A. (1959) : Index
Expedition to Cho Oyu, East Nepal. Muscorum 1 (A-C), in Regnum Veg. 17:
Proc. Ind. Acad. Sc. 51 B : 169-180. 1-548.

BROTHERUS, V. F. (1924-25) : in Engler —-—-—— (1962) : Index Muscorum 2
& Prantl, Die Naturlichen Pflanzen- (D-H), in Regnum Veg. 26: 1-535.
familien, ed. 2, 10 and 11.

Gall-inhabiting Tubuliferous
Thysanoptera-!

T. N. ANANTHAKRISHNAN AND B, N. RAMAMURTHI
Department of Zoology, Loyola College, Madras—34

(With six plates)

Thysanopterocecidia have become a special branch of thrips study,
and the contributions of Karny (1911), Karny & Van Leeuwen
Reijnvaan (1913, 1914-16) provide valuable information on gall thrips
from the Oriental Region, in particular from Java and adjoining areas.
Our knowledge of gall thrips from the Indian mainland is due to
Ramakrishna (1928), who records about 20 species. Mani (1948) in his
work on Cecidozoa and Zoocecidia provides a consolidated list of the
gall-inhabiting thrips. It is a known fact that thrips are primitive
gall-makers, producing mostly leaf rolls, leaf folds, leaf wrinkles, and —
very rarely bud galls, bladder or pouch galls, and horn galls. Studies
on gall-inhabiting thrips naturally involve a study of the population
within the gall and, consequently, information about: (a) the range of
variation of the essential characters of the species involved, (b) the
number of species within the gall and their ability to form independent
galls, and (c) their host specificity. The observations recorded below are
the first of a series to be attempted and, to avoid the monotony of
detailed species descriptions, mention is made of the range of variations
of some important characters of the species which would be useful for
identification.

29 species of gall-inhabiting Tubulifera are discussed below:

Alocothrips hadrocerus (Karny)
Androthrips flavipes Schmutz

Androthrips ramachandrai Karny
Arrhenothrips ramakrishnae Hood
Arrhenothrips dhumrapaksha Ramakrishna
Austrothrips cochinchinensis Karny
Brachythrips dantahasta Ramakrishna
Cercothrips nigrodentatus (Karny) (new record)
Eothrips coimbatorensis Ramakrishna

CHONAKRWNO

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

Gall-inhabiting Tubuliferous Thysanoptera

: a 4

A. Thilakothrips babuli ; 2. Lothrips crassicornis ; 3. Letradothrips foliiperda ;
4. Brachythrips dantahasta

(Photos : T. N. Ananthakrishnan)

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( upuystsypyjUuDUp *N ° 2 $0704 )

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GALL-INHABITING TUBULIFEROUS THYSANOPTERA—I 267

10. Eothrips crassicornis (Karny) (new record)
11. Gynaikothrips gracilis Karny (new record)
12. Gynaikothrips fumipennis Karny (new record)
13. Gynaikothrips flaviantennatus Moulton

14. Gynaikothrips karnyi Ramakrishna

15. Gynaikothrips malabaricus Ramakrishna
16. Gynaikothrips moultoni Ramakrishna

17. Gynaikothrips pallicrus Karny

18. Gynaikothrips uzeli Zimmerman

19. Liothrips hradecensis Uzel (new record)

20. Lygothrips jambuvasi (Ramakrishna)

21. Mallothrips indicus Ramakrishna

22. Mesothrips melinocnemis Karny

23. Mesothrips jordani (Karny)

24. Mesothrips vitripennis Katny (new record)
25. Rhynchothrips raoensis Ramakrishna

26. Tetradothrips foliiperda (Katny)

27. Teuchothrips longus (Schmutz) (new record)
28. Teuchothrips priesneri Ananthakrishnan

29. Thilakothrips babuli Ramakrishna

Alocothrips hadrocerus (Karny)

Trichothrips hadrocerus Karny, 1926, Mem. Dept. Agri. Ind., Ent. Ser., Calcutta
9 (6): 220; Ramakrishna, 1928, ibid. 10 (7): 298 ; Ramakrishna & Margabandhu,
1940, Catalogue of Indian Insects 25 : 41.

Alocothrips hadrocerus Priesner, 1951, Indian J. Ent. 13 (2) : 195 ; Ananthakrish-
nan, 1964, Opuscula Entomologica Lund. Suppl. 25 : 26-27.

This rather uncommon species has been rediscovered after 37 years
from the marginal leaf gall of a wild plant, from Shencottah Hills (2500
ft.). Of 15 individuals collected within this gall, 11 are macropterous
females, two apterous females, and two brachypterous males. It is a
point of interest to observe the divergence in coloration between the
three categories of individuals within the same gall. All the macropter-
ous forms are brown to pale brown, with only the antennal segment 3
tinged yellow. The apterous females have head, prothorax, all legs, and
all antennal segments yellowish, the rest of the body yellowish brown.
The brachypterous forms have an intermediate range of coloration, with
legs paler brown, as also antennal segments 6 to 8 brown, rest pale.

Chaetotaxy of the females. Postoculars 45 to 48 ; anteromarginals 32 ;
anteroangulars 38 to 43; midlaterals 45 to 48 ; postangulars 48 to 54 and
epimerals 48 to 64 long. Tube very characteristic of the genus, 168 to
182 long, 98 wide at base, 56-70! at apex; accessory fringes on ne
forewing 7 to 8.

1 All measurements in microns,

268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol G22)

Material. 11 macropterous females, 2 apterous females, and 2 brachyp-
terous males, within one gall on the leaf of a wild plant, Shencottah
Hills, S. India (2500 ft.), 18.viii.1963.

Androthrips flavipes Schmutz

Androthrips flavipes Schmutz, 1915, Sitz. Akad. Wiss. Wien. 1031; Karny, 1915,
Zeit. Wiss. Insektenbiol. 11:90; Bagnall, 1918, A.M.N.A. 13 (8) : 27-28; Karny,
1926, Mem. Dept. Agr. Ind., Ent. Ser., Calcutta 9 (6): 224 3 Ananthakrishnan, 1964,
Opuscula Entomologica Lund. Suppl. 25 : 28.

This species is not known as an independent gall-producer. Several
individuals were collected during the present studies from four sources—
in the galls of Mimusops produced by Arrhenothrips ramakrishnae, in
the leaf galls of Memexylon produced by Brachythrips dantahasta Ramk.,,
in the leaf-galls of Ficus sp. caused by Gynaikothrips flaviantennatus_
Moulton, and in leaf-galls of Ficus benjamina produced by Gynaikoth-
rips uzeli. Yn all these cases Androthrips was not the dominant species.
During the peak months of their occurrence (Jan. to Mch.), Androthrips
flavipes number 6 to 8 in many galls and 2 to 3 in other months; their
number is much less in the smaller galls of Memexylon. Ananthakrish-
nan (1964) refers to the range of variations in colour and the thoracic
chaetotaxy.

Material. 32 females, 19 males inside Mimusops galls, Madras,
19.xii.63 and 28.xii.63; 9 females, 5 males, in Mimusops galls, Chidam-
baram, 4.x.63 ; 8 females, 6 males in leaf-galls of Memexylon, Calicut,
5.x.1963; 12 females, 4 males in leaf-galls of Memexylon, Agambe
Ghat road, 22.164; 28 females, 7 males, in Ficus benjamina galls,
Courtallum, 14.1x.64 ; 18 females, 4 males, in Ficus sp. galls, Madras,
8.v.65.

Androthrips ramachandrai Karny

Androthrips ramachandrai Karny, 1926, Mem. Dept. Agr. Ind., Ent. Ser.,
Calcutta 9 (6) : 226; Ramakrishna & Margabandhu, 1940, Catalogue of Indian Insects
25: 44; Ananthakrishnan, 1964, Opuscula Entomologica Lund. Suppl. 25: 29.

This species is not a true gall-producer and, when present, is associated
with Austrothrips cochinchinensis Karny within the axillary bud galls of
Calycopteris floribunda. In the course of the present studies, nearly a
hundred galls of different sizes were examined from parts of Kerala,
parts of Mysore, and Courtallum (Tirunelveli District) where the host
plant is abundant and about 75 individuals were collected. In a
medium-sized gall where the number of Austrothrips cochinchinensis,
the gall-makers, ranges from 300 to 400, such as those examined in
Courtallum during the months August-October, the number of
Androthrips ramachandrai per gall was about the range 9 to 12, The

GALL-INHABITING TUBULIFEROUS THYSANOPTERA—I 269

following range of variation is observed in the males and females of this
species.

FEMALE MALE
Postoculars ao 84-112 70-112
Anteroangulars ee 70-98 56-84
Midlaterals ae 84-112 56-112
Postangulars ae 84-112 70-112
Epimerals aa 98-140 84-126
Forefemoral width Y; Sale 96-168
Prothoracic length we ela OR 182 112-168
Tarsal tooth ee. 28-42 14-42

Arrhenothrips. dhumrapaksha Ramakrishna

Arrhenothrips dhumrapaksha Ramakrishna, 1928, Mem. Dept. Agri. Ind., Ent.
Ser., Calcutta 10 (7): 280; Ramakrishna & Margabandhu, 1940 , Catalogue of Indian
Insects 25: 31; Ananthakrishnan, 1964, Opuscula Entomologica Lund. Suppl. 25: 32.

This species is recorded in considerable numbers from the leaf-fold
galls of Ficus retusa, from Agambe Forest, Ghat road (Mysore State).
The gall resembles that caused by Gynaikothrips uzeli on the same host
plant. However, in none of the galls examined did both species occur
together. The leaves, in particular the terminal leaves, become folded
upwards and, due to the thickening of the leaf blade, the sides of
the fold assume a slight convexity. Apart from the clouded nature of
the wings, the shorter metanotal setae and the anteroangulars shorter
than the anteromarginals are very characteristic of A. dhumrapaksha, not
to speak of the host specificity involved in gall production. Experi-
mental gall induction on Ficus leaves by Arrhenothrips ramakrishnae
did not succeed.

FEMALE MALE
Head width .. 210-266 196-252
Postoculars os 84-126 56-112
Prothoracic length oe 196-266 196-252
Anteroangulars wy 56- 70 36-42
Postangulars cae 98-112 70-84.
Epimerals aatores 98-126 56-98
Forefemoral width eer 90-206 154-238
Foretarsal tooth ae 70-112 56- 70

Material, 35 females and 18 males from leaf-galls of Ficus retusa,
Agambe Forest, Ghat road, Mysore State (21.1.1964).

Arrhenothrips ramakrishnae Hood (Plate III, 9)

_ Arrhenothrips ramakrishnae Hood, 1919, Insec. Inscit. Menstr. 7: 99 ; Rama-
krishna, 1928, Mem. Dept. Agr. Ind., Ent. Ser., Calcutta 10 (7): 282; Anantha-
krishnan, 1954, Agra Bry J. Res. (Science) 3 (2): 463-474; 1964, Opuscula
Entomologica Lund. Suppl. 25: 31-32.

270, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

This is one of the commonest of gall-producing Tubulifera causing
leaf-fold galls on Mimusops elengi. Several hundreds of galls and
individuals examined from Mimusops galls from different regions did
not reveal the presence of even a single Liophlaeothrips vichitravarna
(Ramk.) (= Rhynchothrips vichitravarna). It is clear beyond doubt that
only Arrhenothrips ramakrishnae produces the galls.

Duration of egg and nymphal stages. Egg, 5-6 days; I instar, 3-4
days; Il instar, 3-5 days; pre-pupa, | day; pupal, 2-3 days; pupa
II, 1 day.

Austrothrips cochinchinensis Karny (Plate V, 15)

Austrothrips cochinchinensis Karny, 1923, J. Siam. Soc. 21: 113; Ramachandra
Rao, 1924, Agr. J. India 19 (4): 436; Karny, 1926, Mem. Dept. Agr. Ind., Ent.
Ser., Calcutta 9 (6): 259; Ramakrishna, 1928, ibid. 10 (7): 297; Mani, 1948,
J. Roy. Asia. Soc. Bengal 14 (2): 69, 107; Ananthakrishnan, 1964, Opuscula
Entomologica Lund. Suppl. 25 : 33.

This is the only thrips known to produce the axillary bud galls
in Calycopteris floribunda. The galls were observed in all stages of
development, the larger galls ranging from 25 to 45 mm. in diameter.
They were abundant throughout Kerala State and the Kerala-Mysore
border’ area, and in Madras State the author collected them.
in numbers from Courtallum (Tirunelveli District), The very long,
knobbed bristles of the body are very characteristic of the species
and the following range is observed in the females :

Postoculars 83 to 96, anteroangulars 51 to 64, anteromarginals
58 to 80, midlaterals 64 to 96, postangulars 86 to 96, epimerals 93 to
109. Only two males were observed ; measurements : anteroangulars 54,
anteromarginal 61, midlateral 86, epimeral 102.

Material. Two males and numerous females, inside galls of Caly-
copteris floribunda, Courtallum, Kerala, and Mysore.

Brachythrips dantahasta Ramakrishna (Plate I, 4)

Brachythrips dantahasta Ramakrishna, 1928, Mem. Dept. Agr. Ind., Ent. Ser.,
Calcutta 10 (7): 294; Ramakrishna & Margabandhu, 1940, Catalogue of Indian
Insects 25 :~40; Ananthakrishnan, 1964, Opuscula Entomologica Lund. Suppl. 25: 34-

This species has been known to produce galls on Memexylon sp.,
causing the leaf-margin-roll gall, and in the final stages of gall-produc-
tion the leaf blade appears swollen, crumpled, twisted, and tuberculated
(see Plate I, 4). The distribution of this species, so far observed by the
authors, includes mainly Kerala State, Mangalore, and the Agambe
Forest areas of Mysore. The head length in th® females varies from
196 to 224, in the males 196 to 210, the corresponding widths being 210

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GALL-INHABITING TUBULIFEROUS THYSANOPTERA—I 271

to 226 and 210 to 238 respectively. Very few individuals show the
head as long as wide (210).

Prothoracic chaetotaxy. Females: Postoculars 48 to 64, anteroan-
gulars 19 to 22, anteromarginals 19 to 22, midlaterals 29 to 32,
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Ghat road, Mysore State (20.1.1964) ; 42 females, 22 males, Courtallum
(Tirunelveli District) 13.x.64.

Cercothrips nigrodentatus (Karny) (Plates JI, 5 and IV, 13)

Acanthinothrips nigrodentatus Karny, 1930, Bull. Jard. bot. Buitenzorg 10: 120.

Cercothrips nigrodentatus Priesner, 1949, Bull. Soc. Fouad Ier, Entom. 33 : 124.

Large colonies of this large-sized Tubuliferan were found feeding on
the underside of the leaves of Planchona valida from Courtallum,
Moodbidri (Mangalore), Hubli, Shencottah Hills, etc. Over two
hundred individuals at a time, including the nymphal stages were found
concentrated on single leaf making them wrinkled and crumpled.

Prothoracic chaetotaxy. Females: Postoculars 64-74, anteroan-
gulars 32 to 54, anteromarginals 16 to 22, midlaterals 32 to 48, postan-
gulars 16 to 32, epimerals 80 to 112. Males: 32 to 58, 42 to 58, 16 to
22, 38 to 48,16 to 32, 64 to 96 paper yen 3 in the order mentioned for
the females,

Eothrips coimbatorensis Ramakrishna

Eothrips coimbatorensis Ramakrishna, 1928, Mem. Dept. Agri. Ind., Ent. Ser.,
Calcutta 10 (7): 298-299; Ananthakrishnan, 1964, Opuscula Entomologica Lund.
Suppl. 25 : 40-41. £

Eothrips aswamukha Ramakrishna, 1928, Mem. Dept. Agri. Ind., Ent. Ser.,
Calcutta 10 (7) : 299-300 ; Ananthakrishnan, 1954, J. Zool. Soc. India 6 (2) : 164.

This species has been known to produce the twisted, cylindrical roll-
gall of the leaf and very few adults: were recorded during the past
studies as most of the forms were immature stages. Ananthakrishnan
(1964) gives a detailed description of the species with the range of
measurements. |

Eothrips crassicornis (Karny) (Plate 1, 2)

Dolerothrips crassicornis Karny, 1912, Marcellia 11: 126 ; Karny, 1913, Bull. Jard.
bot. Buitenzorg 10 : 84-86 ; Hood, 1915, Entomologist 48: 106; Priesner, 1949, Bull.
Soc. Fouad Ier Entom., 33 : 94.

Only 5 females along with some immature stages of this species,
which is a new record to India, were collected from an unidentified
plant from Horsley Hills, Madanapalle.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

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GALL-INHABITING TUBULIFEROUS THYSANOPTERA—I 273
Genus Gynaikothrips Karny

Gynaikothrips Ananthakrishnan, 1964, Opuscula Entomologica Lund. Suppl.
25 : 45 (All major references to the genus provided).

This genus comprises several well-known gall-forming species.
Seven species are recorded here: G. flaviantennatus Moulton, G. fumi-
pennis Karny, G. karnyi Bagnall, G. malabaricus Ramakrishna,
G. moultoni Ramakrishna, G. pallicrus Karny, and G. uzeli Zimmerman.
The tabular statement below, indicates the distinctive characters of the
species, with the range of variations. |

Gynaikothrips flaviantennatus Moulton

Gynaikothrips flaviantennatus Moulton, 1929, Rec. Ind. Mus. 31: 98 ; Ramakrishna
& Margabandhu, 1940, Catalogue of Indian Insects 25 : 45.

The present record is based on numerous females and males taken
inside the leaf-rolls of a wild plant, Madras, 5.v.63. —

Gynaikothrips fumipennis Karny

Gynaikothrips fumipennis Karny, 1913, Bull. Jard. bot. Buitenzorg 10: 104-105.

This species is a new record for the Indian mainland, 8 females and 5
males collected from the leaf-rolls of Conocephalus sp. from Courtallum,
18.vili. 1963.

Gynaikothrips karnyi Bagnall

Gynaikothrips karnyi Bagnall, 1913, A.M.N.H. 13 (8) : 23-31; Ramakrishna &
Margabandhu, 1940, Catalogue of Indian Insects 25:46; Ananthakrishnan, 1952,
Indian J. Ent. 14: 201; Ananthakrishnan, 1960, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57
(3) : 576. es

This species causes the marginal-leaf-stitch gall in pepper (Piper
nigrum) and is known all over south India. It was collected in the course
of the present studies from Kallar, Burliar (Nilgiris), Calicut, Wynaad,
Taliparamba, etc. (Kerala). Ananthakrishnan (1960) provides a com-
-plete range of variations of the males and females of this species.
In so far as the present collections go, only the above species has been
noticed within the gall.

Material. Numerous males and females inside pepper galls,

Gynaikothrips malabaricus Ramakrishna (Plate III, 10)

Gynaikothrips malabaricus Ramakrishna, 1928, Mem. Dept. Agr. Ind., Ent. Ser.,
Calcutta 10 (7) : 302-303 ; Ramakrishna & Margabandhu, 1940, Catalogue of Indian
Insects 25 : 46.

374 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

This species was described by Ramakrishna from 4 females and 3
males taken from the rolled tubular edges of Ficus bengalensis. More
than 120 individuals were taken within similar Ficus galls from Yercaud
(Salem) and Guindy, Madras. |

Gynaikothrips moultoni Ramakrishna (Plate III, 5)

Gynaikothrips moultoni Ramakrishna, 1928, Mem. Dept. Agr. Ind., Ent. Ga

Calcutta 10 (7): 303-304; Ramakrishna & Margabandhu, 1940, Catalogue of Indian
Insects 25:46; Ananthakrishnan, 1964, Entomol. Ts. Arg. 85. H 3-4: 225-226.

This species-is known to produce tubular galls of Ficus sp. jutting
out from the lower and upper leaf surfaces more or less similar to the
horn galls. 45 females and 14 males were collected within such galls
from Salem, 18.vii.1963.

Gynaikothrips pallicrus Karny

-Gynaikothrips pallicrus Karny, 1923, Treubia 3: 315; Ramakrishna & Margaban-
dhu, 1939, Rec. Ind. Mus. 41: 32.

While the host plant from which this species was collected by Rama-

krishna & Margabandhu from the Nilgiris has not been mentioned, it is
of interest to record 4 females and 2 males of this species from the leaf-
galls of Pothos scandens, along with the gall-maker Tetradothrips
foliiperda (Karny) and the inquiline Mesothrips melinocnemis Karny.
Moodbidri, near Mangalore (Mysore State) 21.1.1964.

Gynaikothrips uzeli Zimmerman (Plate V, 14)

Gyraikothrips uzeli Zimmerman, 1900, Bull. Inst. Bot. Buit. 7 : 12.
This is .one -of the commonest: species: of -Gynaikothrips- producing
leaf-fold - galls -on: Ficus~ benjamina. ‘Collections were made from

identical galls from Burliar (Nilgiris) 7.vi.63, Courtallum (Tirunelveli
Dist) 17.viil.63, and Agambe Forest, Mysore, 23.1.64; 23.1. 65.

Gynaikothrips gracilis Karny

Gynaikothrips gracilis Karny, 1913, Bull. Jard. bot. Buitenzorg 10: 113-115. .
This species is found always in association with Cercothrips nigroden-
tatus on the leaves of Planchona valida. _ About 7 to 12 individuals on an
average are present on a leaf. Localities, as for C. nigrodentatus.

Liothrips hradecensis Uzel

Liothrips hradecensis Uzel, 1895, Mon. Thys. Taff 7: 262..

Examination of Ficus benjamina galls for G. uzelirevealed the presence
in very small numbers of the above species, which incidentally is an
inquiline and a new record for India.

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JourRN. Bomspay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE VI

Gall-inhabiting Tubuliferous Thysanoptera

16. Teuchothrips longus

(Photo: T. N. Ananthakrishnan )

GALL-INHABITING TUBULIFEROUS THYSANOPTERA—I 275

Material. Courtallum, 5 females inside Ficus galls along with
G. uzeli and PL Rage flavipes, 13.x.64.

Lygothrips jambuvasi (Ramakrishna) (Plate II, 6)

Eothrips Tainbiaast Ramakrishna, 1928, Mem. Dept. Agr. Ind., Ent. Ser., Ge
10 (7) : 300-301.

Lygothrips jambuvasi Ananthakrishnan, 1964, Opuscula Entomologica Lund.
Suppl. 25: 60-61.

Several individuals of both sexes of this interesting gall-maker were
taken from leaf-margin galls of some wild species of Eugenia, Kodai-
kanal Hills, 2500 ft., 9.xii.1963. The following are the ranges of
measurements of the ences.

FEMALE MALE

Postoculars .. 38-48 22-26
Anteroangulars es Siok!) —

_ Midlaterals ie as 13

~ Postangulars .. 45-64 ~ 45-51

Epimerals .. 45-64 45-51

Mallothrips indicus Ramakrishna (Plate II, 7)

lion ibs: indicus Boiatiennal, 1928, Mem. Dept. Agr. Ind., Ent. Ser., Calcutta
10 (7) : 308; Ramakrishna & Margabandhu, 1940, Catalogue of Indian Insects
25:50; Priesner, 1949, Bull. Soc. Fouad Ier Entom, 33:91, 93; Ananthakrishnan
1964, Opuscula Entomologica Lund. Suppl. 25: 63-65.

This species was hitherto believed to make the galls on Eugenia
jambolana leaves.” As the’accompanying plate shows, the galls are in
the form of several isolated oval brownish patches on the leaf. When
these become dry with cracks on the surface, individuals (adults) of this
species enter the galls. No nymphal stages are met with within the
gall, the actual producer of which is some psyllid species. Anantha-.
krishnan (1964) gives an account of the range of variation of the
species. . : |

Material. 20females, 6 males, 10.vii.63; 14 females, 5 males, Pondi-
cherry, 24.vii.63; 28 females, 8 males, Tirupathi, 26.vii.65.

Mesothrips melinocnemis Karny

Mesothrips melinocnemis Karny, 1926, Mem. Dept. Agr. Ind., Ent. Ser., Calcutta 9
(6): 229; Ramakrishna, 1928, ibid. 10 (7): 307; Ramakrishna & Margabandhu,
1940, Catalogue of Indian Insects 25 : 49.

This species is found in association with Tetradothrips foliiperda
within the leaf-galls of Pothos scandens (Plate I, 3). .The material
under review. is based on a..collection of these ‘species collected
from these galls in. Moodbidri (Mangalore) and Taliparamba (Kerala).

276 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

From the meagre number of individuals collected within a large number
of galls, this species has to be regarded only as an intruder on the real
gall-maker, ZYetradothrips foliiperda, which was found in considerable
numbers. Postoculars 128 to 140; anteroangulars and anteromarginals
and midlaterals almost subequal, short, 38 to 48 long; postangulars
128 to 144 and epimerals 128 to 147 long. Accessory fringes of
forewing, 6 to 9.
Material. 2 females and 1 male, Mangalore, 20.i.1964.

Mesothrips jordani Zimmerman

Mesothrips jordani Zimmerman, 1900, Bull. Inst. bot. Buitenzorg 7:16; Karny,
1912, Marcellia 11: 148; Karny & Vanleeuwen, 1913, Bull. Inst. bot. Buitenzorg 10:
68-69.

This species is also a new record for the Indian mainland. It is
found in the company of Gynaikothrips uzeli. Twelve individuals
(7 females and 5 males) were collected from leaf-galls of Ficus sp.,
Courtallum, 18.viii.63.

Anteroangulars 32 to 64; anteromarginals 32 to 48; postangulars
53 to 64; and epimerals 80 to 112, all dark, strong, almost pointed ;
accessory fringes of forewings 11 to 16. The forefemoral width in
the males varies from 112 to 280 in the oedymerous forms.

Mesothrips vitripennis Karny (Plate IV, 12)

Mesothrips vitripennis Karny, 1923, Jour. Siam. Soc. 16 (2) : 149 ;. Priesner, 1926,
Treubia 8, Suppl.: 109; Priesner, 1929 ibid. 10 (4) : 452, 458, 460.

This species also is a new record for the Indian mainland. Several
individuals were collected from the leaf-roll galls of Anogeissus
(Combretacea) from Courtallum and Kerala.

Prothoracic chaetotaxy. Females: Postoculars 96 to 112, antero-
angulars 64 to 73, anteromarginals 48, midlaterals 105, epimerals 96, —
double fringes on forewing 7 to 11. |

Material. 32 females, 12 males, Courtallum, 17.viii.63 ; 7 females,
2 males, Wynaad, 14.x1.63.

Rhynchothrips raoensis Ramakrishna

Rhynchothrips raoensis Ramakrishna, 1928, Mem. Dept. Agr. Ind., Ent. Ser.,
Calcutta 10 (7) : 282.

14 females and 6 males of this species were collected from the leaf-
galls of Mallotus philippinensis from Courtallum, 17.viii.63.

GALL-INHABITING TUBULIFEROUS THYSANOPTERA—I 207.

Tetradothrips foliiperda (Karny) (Plate I, 3)

Eothrips foliiperda ‘Karny, 1926, Mem. Dept. Agr. Ind., Ent. Ser., Calcutta 9
(6): 222; Ramakrishna, 1928, ibid. 10 (7): 298.

Tetradothrips foliiperda Priesner, 1952, Indian J. Ent. 12 (2): 98; Anantha-
krishnan, 1964, Opuscula Entomologica Lund. Suppl. 25 : 40.

This species causes the leaf-roll gall in Pothos scandens. Of over 40
adults taken, only 3 or 4 individuals of Mesothrips melinocnemis
Karny were noticed.

Postoculars 35 to 48 long; anteroangulars, anteromarginals, and
midlaterals, very short, pointed, 35 to 38 long ; postangulars 144 to 166
and epimerals 176 to 198 long.

Material. 26 females and 12 males within leaf- -galls of Pothos
* scandens, Moodbidri, Mangalore (20.1.1964).

Teuchothrips longus (Schmutz) (Plate VI, 16)

Mesothrips longus Schmutz, 1913, Sitz. Akad. Wiss. Wien 122 (1) : 1054.

The species appears to be a common gall-former, causing marginal
leaf-roll galls of Pavetta sp. Only two species of gall-making Teuchothrips
are known from this country, 7. priesneri Ananthakrishnan being
the other species.

Prothoracic chaetotaxy. Females: Postoculars 64 to 70 long,
anteroangulars 32 to 48; anteromarginals 26 to 38; midlaterals 43 to
54; postangulars 64 to 80 and epimerals 70 to 93; all setae dilate at
apex ; 5 to 8 double fringes on forewings.

Material. 34 females, 30 males. on leaf-galls of Pavetta sp.,
Courtallum, 18.viii.63 ; 25 females, 10 males on leaf-galls of Pavetta
sp., Omalur, Salem, 23.iii.64 ; numerous males and females, Alagarkoil
(Madura), 15.x.64.

Teuchothrips priesneri Ananthakrishnan (Plate IIT, 11)

Teuchothrips priesneri Ananthakrishnan, 1964, Entomol. Ts. Arg. 85. H 3-4:
234-235.

This is a stout built species of Teuchothrips causing complete leaf-
gall of the terminal leaf of the tree. Several individuals, adult and
larvae, seen inside the gall, which in its final stages of development
appears twisted and crumpled.

Prothoracic chaetotaxy. Females: Postoculars 106 to 112 long,
pointed ; anteroangulars 43 to 51; anteromarginals 43 to 48; mid-
laterals 70 to 80; postangulars 160 to 166, and epimerals 131 fe 160
long, all pointed. Forewings with 26 to 29 double fringes. The
macropterous females are 3°444-3:808 mm. long, while the males are
3°570-3°710 mm, long.

278 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

Thilakothrips babuli Ramakrishna (Plate I, 1)

Thilakothrips babuli Ramakrishna, 1928, Mem. Dept. Agr. Ind., Ent. Ser., Calcutta
10 (7): 275; Ramakrishna & Margabandhu, 1940, Catalogue -of Indian Insects
25:30; Priesner, 1949, Bull. Soc. Fouad Ier Entom. 33 : 67; Hood, 1957, Proe;
Ent. Soc. Wash. 59 (4): 194-197 ; rap a pe a 1964, Opuscula Entomologica
Lund. Supp!. 25 ; 80-81.

Over 170 individuals of this remarkable gall-maker were recently
collected from Kolattur, Chingleput District, making the leaf rosettes on
Acacia leucophloea. | |

Macropterous and brachypterous individuals were found, the range
of variations being: Macropterous females—Postoculars 38 to 51,
anteroangulars 38 to 51, anteromarginals 38 to 51, postangulars 43 to
48, epimerals 64 to 80, accessory epimerals 32 to 48; males: 32 to 45,
29 to 32, 19 to 32, 42 to 48, 51 to 67, 32 to 38 respectively.

This species has been collected subsequently from Secunderabad,
Gudur, and Tirupathi in Andhra Pradesh.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

_ The authors are grateful to the U. S. Department of Agriculture for
the P. L. 480 grant, during the tenure of which this work was under-
taken,

Further contribution to the Flora of
Pavagadh Hill near Baroda, Gujarat

G. L. SHAH AND J. A, INAMDAR

Department of Botany, Sardar Vallabhbhai Vidyapeeth, Vallabh
Vidyanagar, Gujarat

ABSTRACT

In this paper twenty-six plants are listed, many of which are not
reported by earlier workers from this area. Cassia mimosoides L. is
reported here for the first time for Gujarat. The occurrence of Argyreia
sericea Dalz. and Cynoctonum mitreola Britt. in the present area is an
_ additional locality, since the former has been reported from Saurashtra
by Santapau (1953) and the latter from Lunavada by Saxton (1922).

INTRODUCTION

The flora of many of the forests in the hilly regions of Gujarat State
except for a few forests, e.g. Gir Forest (Santapau & Raizada 1955),
Dangs Forest (Santapau 1954-55), and the forests of Pavagadh Hill,
seems to be little known. Pavagadh Hill, about 46 km. NE. of Baroda,
is botanically known to some extent by the work of Santapau (1955),
Phatak & Joshi (1955), Phatak & Oza (1959), Chavan & Mehta (1959),
and Chavan & Oza (1960, 1961, and 1963).

The authors visited this hill on 20.9.1964 on a botanical excursion,
when extensive collections were made and ample field notes taken.
During this outing some rare plants for Gujarat, e.g. Acrocephalus
indicus O. Kuntze, Argyreia sericea Dalz., Cassia mimosoides L., Cynoc-
tonum mitreola Britt., Eriophorum comosum Wall., Ipomoea iwidied Stapf,
etc., were collected. Cassia mimosoides L., eich is fairly common in
the vicinity of Bombay, was collected here for the first time in Gujarat.
Striga gesneroides Vatke, a root parasite commonly found on Lepidaga-
this cuspidata Nees, was noted on L. trinervis Wall. ex Nees. Its
occurrence on the latter host has also been reported by Santapau (1960,
p. 162). The flowering of Carvia callosa Bremek. (= Strobilanthes
callosus Wall.) has been discussed by Santapau (1944, 1950, 1952, 1962).
We also found it flowering profusely and it was one of the eomspIcuous
plants at this time. :

280 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

Most of the plants listed here are not reported by earlier workers
in the area. Some plants, already accounted for in earlier works, have
also been included, as our observations are somewhat different from
those published.

The names of most of the plants in the present list are the same as
those given in Cooke’s FLORA (1958); where the name is changed, the
correct name (according to us) is given first, followed by the name in
Cooke’s FLORA as a synonym. At the end of each item, we give our
collection number. All the sheets collected from Pavagadh are
deposited in the Herbarium of the Department of Botany, Sardar
Vallabhbhai Vidyapeeth, Vallabh Vidyanagar. Our identifications have
been confirmed by matching the sheets of plants listed with those in the
Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier’s College, Bombay.

LIST OF PLANTS

MALVACEAE

1. Abutilon ramosum Guill. Perr. et. A. Rich.

Rare ; in the undergrowth of forest at the foot of the hill. Flowers
yellow. (Shah 11047).

TALIAGEAE

2. Triumfetta pentandra A, Rich.

Occasional along roadsides and among grasses at the foot of the
hill. For the correct identity of this plant see Blatter in /. Bombay nat.
Hist, Soc. 34: 890, 1931, and Vartak, ibid. 56 (2) : 365-366, 1959. (Shah
11061)

_LINACEAE

3. Linum mysorense Heyne

Small herbs, conspicuous by yellow flowers. Common among grasses.
(Shah 11065)

PAPILIONACEAE

4, Atylosia platycarpa Benth.
Occasional among grasses. Flowers yellow. (Shah 11039)

5. Desmodium diffusum (L.) DC.

A few plants seen in the undergrowth of forest at the foot of the
hill. Flowers bright purple. The glutinous viscid hairs are typical of
this plant. (Shah 11059)

FURTHER CONTRIBUTION TO FLORA OF PAVAGADH HILL 281

6. Indigofera glandulosa Roxb. ex Willd.
Occasional in moist ground along margins of a pond. (Shah 11076A)

CAESALPINIACEAE

7. Cassia mimosoides L.

Rare; a few plants seen among grasses at the foot of the hill.
Flowers yellow. (Shah 11050)

RUBIACEAE

8. Adina cordifolia (Roxb.) Hook. f.
One tree seen near Machi. (Shah 11055)

COMPOSITAE

9, Centratherum phyllolaenum (DC.) Benth. ex Clarke
Common in shaded spots; also seen on old walls. (Shah 11058)

10. Pulicaria wightiana (DC.) Benth, ex Clarke
Occasional among grasses. Flowers bright yellow. (Shah 11064)

LOGANIACEAE

11, Cynoctonum mitreola (L.) Britt. [Mitreola oldenlandioides Wall.)

Rare ; only two plants seen in the undergrowth of the forest at the
foot of the hill. Flowers white. The senior author (1962) has discussed
the nomenclature of the present plant. (Shah 11081)

CONVOLVULACEAE

12, Argyreia sericea Dalz.

A patch seen among grasses. Flowers bright purple. This is an
additional record from Gujarat. In the vicinity of Bombay this is one
of the commonest twiners during the rainy season. (Shah 11070)

13. Cuscuta chinensis Lamk.

A rare parasite noted on Cassia tora L. Flowers pale yellow or
creamy-white, (Shah 11081A)
14, Ipomoea eriocarpa R. Br.

An occasional twiner among grasses. Flowers purple. For the
nomenclature of this plant see van Ooststroom in F/, Males 4 (4) : 462,
1954. (Shah 11088)

282 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

15. Ipomoea muricata (L.) Jacq. [Calonyction muricatum Don] ,
A rare twiner. Flowers bright purple. The thickened pedicels of
the fruits and muricated stem are typical of this plant. (Shah 11086)

16. Ipomoea sepiaria Roxb.

Common on hedges. Flowers white. Santapau (1955) also reported
this colour for this plant in this area. In vicinity of Tuva, in Kaira
District, white flowers have been observed by. us. However, in the
neighbourhood of Baroda, Broach, and Bombay, the flowers seen, so far,
have been the normal pink to rosy purple colour. Verdcourt [Kew Bull.
15(1) : 7-8, 1961] has discussed the nomenclature of the present plant
and according to him J. sepiaria Roxb. is correct and not I. maxima
Don ex Sw. as given in some recent works. (Shah 11054).

17. Ipomoea sindica Stapf
Rare; a small patch seen. among grasses mixed with Atylosia
platycarpa Benth. Flowers pale yellow or creamy-white. (Shah 11077)

18. Ipomoea sinensis (Desr.) Choisy [[pomoea calycia (Roxb.) Clarke]
A rare twiner in the area. Flowers creamy-white. We have followed

Verdcourt, FI. Trop. Africa (Convoly.) p. 101, 1963, for the nomen-

clature of this plant. (Shah 11082) = | JESS

SCROPHULARIACEAE

19. Striga gesneroides (Willd.) Vatke [Striga orobanchioides Benth.] —
-A rare parasite on Lepidagathis trinervis Wall. Flowers bright
purple. (Shah 11076) | yey

LABIATAE

20. Acrocephalus indicus °O. Kuntze [Acrocephalus capitatus Benth.]
Rare on grassy slopes, growing along with Lepidagathis trinervis
Wall. Flowers blue. (Shah 11078)

AMARANTHACEAE

2A: Achyranthes aspera L. var. porphyristachya Hook. f.

Common in shaded spots. At the foot of the hill it was found
among grass in patches mixed with Pupalia lappacea Juss. and P. atro-
purpurea Mog. (Shah 11048)

22. Pupalia atropurpurea (DC.) Mog. Lge at
Occasional among grass in stony ground, Spikes tinged bright 4
purple. (Shah 11042)

FURTHER CONTRIBUTION TO FLORA OF PAVAGADH HILL

283

EUPHORBIACEAE

23. Phyllanthus urinaria L.

Rare; the minutely echinate fruits are typical of this plant.

11095)

(Shah

DIOSCOREACEAE

24, Dioscorea pentaphylla L.

Occasional twiner with female flowers and young fruits.

11105)

(Shah

COMMELINACEAE

25. Commelina kurzii Clarke

A few plants noted on old walls. Flowers violet purple. This plant
may be confused with C. paludosa BI. (= C. obliqua Ham. ex Don) which it
resembles in general appearance, but Rao (1962) has shown that the two
species are quite distinct. Our plant tallies with the sheets of
C. kurzii Clarke in the Blatter Herbarium, identified by ae, and also
with the illustration given by him. (Shah 11045)

CYPERACEAE

26. Eriophorum comosum Wall.
Rare, on grassy slopes. Cooke (3:411) cites } locality Gujarat :

Champanir, a village at the foot of Pavagadh Hill. (Shah 11063)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are deeply thankful to Prof. P. V. Bole for giving
facilities for work in the Blatter Herbarium. Thanks are also due
to Dr. J. J. Shah for facilities and interest in the work.

REFERENCES

Cuavan, A. R., & MEHTA, A.R. (1959):
Grasses of Pavagadh. J. Indian bot. Soc.
38 : 171-185.

——_——— & OzA, G. M. (1960):
Cucumis setosus Cogn. A new record
for Bombay. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
57: 699, t. 1.

————— (1961) : Momordica
denudata Clarke (Cucurbitac.) and Trema
politoria Planch. (Ulmac.) : New records

for Bombay. ibid. 58: 303-304.

. (1963): New host

ns ts ne es me

plants for Dendrophthoe falcata (Linn. f.)
Ettings. at Pavagadh. ibid. 60: 472-473.

Cooke, T. (1958): The Flora of the
Presidency of Bombay. Reprinted edi-
tion, Calcutta.

PHATAK, V.G., & JosHI, B. B. (1955) :

Flora of Pavagadh Hill, Eastern Gujarat.
J. M.S. Univ. Baroda 4: 73-85.
& Oza, G. M. (1959):
Occurrence of Curcuma inodora Blatter
at Pavagadh (Gujarat). J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 56 : 368-369,

284

Rao, R.S., & KAMMATHY, R. V.(1962):
Notes on Indian Commelinaceae. /. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc. 59: 58-70, tt. 1 & 2.

SANTAPAU, H. (1944-1952): The flower-
ing of Strobilanthes. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 44: 605, 1944; 49: 320-321, 1950;
50: 430-431, 1952.

————— (1953): Plants of Saura-
shtra. A preliminary list. Rajkot.

—————— (1954-55): Contributions
to the Botany of Dangs{Forest, Bombay
State. J. Gujerat Res. Soc. 16: 285-320,
1954 and 17: 1-59, 1955.

——— —— (1955): Excursion of the
Indian Botanical Society to Pavagadh Hill

near Baroda on January 7th 1955. J.

Indian bot. Soc. 34: 158-189, tt. 6.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

SANTAPAU, H. (1960): The flora of Khan-

dala on the Western Ghats of India.
Rec. bot. Surv. India 16: (ed. 2.) 162.
_ 7 —- — (1962) : Gregarious flower-
ing of Strobilanthes and Bamboos. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59 : 688-695, t. 1.
——, & RAIZADA, M. B. (1955) :
Contributions to the flora of Gir forest
in Saurashtra. Indian For. Rec. (N. 8.) 4
(6) : 105-170.

SAXTON, W. T. (1922): Plants of
Northern Gujarat. Rec. bot. Surv. India
9 (3): 251-262.

SHAH, G. L. (1962) : Name changes of
some common Bombay plants. J. UMniy.
Bombay 30: 32-41.

On a new species of commensal
porcellanid crab, Polyonyx
loimicola sp. nov., from India:
(Crustacea, Anomura, Porcellanidae)

K. N. SANKOLLI
Taraporevala Marine Biological Research Station, Bombay

(With two plates)

_ The commensal porcellanid crab belonging to the genus Polyonyx,
dealt with in another paper (Sankolli & Shenoy 1965) belongs to
a hitherto undescribed species. The present paper deals with the
taxonomic account of this new species.

Polyonyx loimicola sp. nov.
(Plates I and II)

_ Diagnosis. Carapace somewhat quadrangular, proportion of length
to breadth being 3: 4; dorsal surface strongly convex longitudinally,
smooth with transverse rugae or plications on postero-lateral half
behind the cardiac region; carapace regions faintly indicated, latera]
margin fringed with matted hairs ; front broad, measuring nearly ? the
width of carapace and fringed with matted hairs between the eyes which
are remarkably small; rostrum obtuse, scarcely produced; chelipeds
unequal, provided with matted hairs ; merus with fine transverse rugae on
dorsal surface, its lobe slightly produced ; carpus broadens distally, its
dorsal surface almost smooth except for fine rugae proximally, its convex
carina edged with granular bead-like tubercles; propodus with few
rugae ; fingers of major chela with a gap between them when closed,
their tips bent slightly outwards, cutting edge of fixed finger with one
big basal tooth and that of movable finger with about 6 teeth, the distal-
most being the largest; all the segments of chelipeds matted with
hair, merus on the inner surface, carpus thinly along the carina and the
inner lower and distal margins, propodus densely matted with hair on
the inner lateral surface and along the entire outer lower margin, the

286 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

hairs spreading on the entire fixed finger ; finger gap and dactylus
fringed with matted hairs; fingers of smaller cheliped with a very little
gap and cross each other when closed ; walking legs thickly matted
with hair, merus and carpus unarmed, merus of 3rd leg twice as long as
broad and propodus of the same leg more than twice as long as broad
and armed with 3 distal spinules on posterior margin, no submedian
spinule, dactylus four-clawed ; males with a single pair of pleopods.

Description. Carapace (Plate I, a) broader than long, proportion of
length to breadth being 3: 4. Dorsal surface strongly convex longitudi-
nally, smooth with transverse rugae or plications on the postero-lateral
half behind the cardiac region. Carapace regions faintly indicated.
The lateral margin of carapace is fringed with’ thickly matted hairs.
Front broad, straight in dorsal view, measuring nearly ? the width of the
carapace, and fringed with matted hairs between the eyes, which are
remarkably small; rostrum obtuse, projecting a little and not seen from
above (Plate I, b). Antero-lateral margin of carapace takes a fine
curve immediately after the base of antennal pedunvle: postero-lateral
margin rounded ; :posterior margin concave.

Antennule (Plate II, a). First segment smooth, thickened distally ; ;
upper plate flat rather than concave; antero-inner lobe not produced
beyond upper plate ; lateral margins convergent basally. (eee

Antenna (Plate II, b). The first segment broad, elongated,
narrowing towards the inner side to : an acuminate point. Remaining
segments are cylindrical aid smooth.~

Third maxilliped (Plate II, c). Inner. crest of merus rather narrow,
though. rounded and almost symmetrical ; sternum of third maxilliped
shorter than the thoracic ‘sternum (Plate II, d) and its anterior margin
1s COTfIVEX. The lateral processes are-long and narrow, slightly projecting
upwards. beyond the anterior margin with slightly concave outer lateral
border.

Chelipeds (Plate I, a). Unequal, left or right being larger ; provided
with matted hairs. Merus with fine transverse rugae which are most
prominent on the dorsal surface and practically absent on the ventral
surface. The-distal end of the anterior margin so slightly produced that
it can hardly be called a carina. Carpus twice as long as broad and
much narrower proximally than distally, forming a convex carina on its
anterior margin which is edged with granular bead-like tubercles.
Dorsal. surface smooth except for fine rugae which are present proxi-
mally and along the proximal half of the anterior margin. Propodus
armed with few rugae, which are prominent about the upper inner side
and fade away along the upper outer, inner lower, and ventral surfaces,
and towards the fixed finger. The fingers of the major chela leave a gap
between them when closed and their tips are bent slightly outwards.
Dactyliis’ Has one or two longitudinal plications: which run almost

JOURN. BomBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE |

Polyonyx loimicola sp. nov.

a. Dorsal view; 6. front as viewed from above

JOURN, BomMBAYy NAT. HIST. Soc. PLATE II

1-O mm.

a 1-Omm. e
-Omm, (b,c,e)

|
(d, f)

Poiyonyx loimicola sp. nov.

a. Basal segment of antennule; 3d. antenna ; c. third maxilliped; d. sternum
of third maxilliped; e. third leg; /f. telson

A NEW PORCELLANID CRAB, POLYONYX LOIMICOLA 287

parallel to its anterior margin. All the segments of chelipeds matted
with hair, merus on inner surface and carpus thinly along the carina
and along the inner lower and distal margins ; propodus densely matted
with hair along the entire outer lower margin. These hairs also spread
on the entire fixed finger starting from about its base ; so also on inner
lateral surface of propodus and the finger gap. Dactylus is also fringed
with matted hairs. Cutting edge of fixed finger is armed with one big
tubercle-like tooth basally and that of the movable finger with six teeth
of which the first (basal), fifth, and sixth (distal-most) are longer than
the remaining three which are closely set. The distal-most tooth,
the largest, is situated slightly ventrally.

Smaller cheliped differs from the major in that the fingers leave very
little gap between them and cross each other when closed. |

Ambulatory leg (Plate II, e). These successively decrease in size,
bearing thickly matted hairs all over except the anterior part of ventral
surface, on dactylus hairs are scanty; merus and. carpus unarmed;
merus of third walking leg about twice as long as wide, and the propodus
more than twice as long as wide and armed with 3 spinules on posterior
margin, 2 of which are in a pair at the distal end and the 3rd just
behind them ; dactylus 4-clawed, the accessory claw being smaller than

_ the principal which is the largest, the remaining 2 being very small.

Telson (Plate II, f).. .7-plated, the central plate being rather broad.

_ Male, A pair of pleopods occur in the males. .

__ Material examined. About 50 specimens of- varying. sizes were
collected from Chowpatty, Bombay. .

_ Holotype (:) a 2 which will, in due ¢ course, be deposited i in ule collec:
tion of the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

... Measurements.. Of the material examined, males ranged from 3: 0 to
6-5 mim., non-ovigerous females from 3-00 to 4:25 mm., and ovigerous
females from 4°25 to 8°50 mm., in carapace width.

Colour in life. The crabs are light brown in-colour, matching well
with the inner side of the tube of Loimia medusa, the host organism..

Ecology. This species is a commensal of the Annelid tube-worm
Loimia medusa (Savigny) which is quite common in the intertidal zone.
Generally a pair of crabs, male and female, is found inside the tube of
the host, the size of the crabs varying with that of the tube. In a pair,
the female is usually larger than the male.

- Ovigerous. females were collected throughout the year except during
the monsoon (from June to September) when observations could not be

made.

Relationship. The new species belongs to the P. sinensis group as
defined by Johnson (1958) for the Indo-West Pacific species of Polyonyx.
Of this group, P. utinomi Miyake, P. sinensis Stimpson, and P. cometes
Walker, especially the last two, are more closely related to the new

288 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

species. The salient morphological features of these three and the new
species are given in Table at pp. 290-1 below.

P. utinomi, which is also a commensal form (Miyake 1943), differs in
having the lateral margins of the carapace not hairy ; only inner surface
of carpus and merus of the chelipeds somewhat hairy ; meral lobe large ;
carpus not broadening distally ; no tooth at the base of the cutting edge
of fingers of the major cheliped.

As regards P. sinensis, the only available information is Stimpson’s
(1858) very short, rather inadequate description and figure, supposed to
be based largely on a male (as cited by Johnson 1958). Shen (1936)
redescribed this species but under a different name, asiaticus, based on
a single ovigerous female, and later Miyake (1943) described a single
male as sinensis. Miyake, however, does not compare it with Shen’s
asiaticus. My comparison of the new species with the description of
sinensis as given by Shen and Miyake shows the following differences
from the new species : chelipeds and walking legs much less hairy, i.e.
mostly in the form of a marginal fringe ; the cutting edge of dactylus of
major cheliped with not more than a single, blunt tooth at the base ;
fingers of smaller cheliped not gaping ; a sub-median spinule on the
lower border of propodus of walking legs, in addition to the 3 distal
ones.

Johnson (1958) placed de Man’s (1888) euphrosyne as a synonym of
Walker’s (1887) cometes. His conclusions were based on a comparison
of the descriptions and figures as given by the two authors. But
Johnson’s statement that de Man’s material came from the siphons of
the bivalve Aspergillum is incorrect. De Man, in his account of the
species clearly stated :.‘ A fine, adult specimen without eggs was found
by Dr. Anderson, living along with an annelid in its tube’, and commen-
ted on the similar commensal habits of this species and Haswell’s
P. transversus, which was found in the siphons of Aspergillum.
P. cometes differs from the new species in the following characters :
carpus of major cheliped somewhat different in shape and almost
uniformly broad except for the narrowing at either extremity (as per de
Man’s figure); a prominent meral lobe; a sub-median spinule on the
posterior margin of propodus of walking legs ; no tooth at the base of
the cutting edge of fixed finger; upper surface of carpus and outer
surface of palm minutely punctate in major cheliped.

Remarks. Some of the specimens are comparatively less hairy on
the sides of the carapace and on the carpus and merus of the chelipeds.

The present account brings the total number of Polyonyx spp. known
from the Indo-West Pacific region to 16, 14 recognized by Johnson
(1958) and another new species, described by me (Sankolli in the press).

A NEW: PORCELLANID CRAB,’ POLYONYX LOIMICOLA

289

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am greatly obliged to Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, Director of Fisheries,
Maharashtra, for critically going through the manuscript, and to
Dr. H. G. Kewalramani, Senior Scientific Officer, for valuable guidance
during the course of the study. I am specially indebted to Dr. (Miss)
Janet Haig of Allan Hancock Foundation, California, for confirming the
new species, for providing a photo-copy of Shen’s (1936) paper, and for

valuable suggestions.

REFERENCES

JOHNSON, D. S. (1958): The Indo-
West Pacific species of the genus
Polyonyx (Crustacea, Decapoda, Porcel-

-lJanidae). Ann. Zool. (India) 2: 95-118,
text-figs. 1-4.

Man, J.G. DE (1888) : Report on the
Podophthalmous Crustacea of the Mer-
gui Archipelago, collected for the Trus-
tees of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, by
Dr. J. Anderson, F.R.s., Superintendent
of the Museum. Journ. Linn. Soc.
“ea (Zool.) 22: 221-222, pl. 15, figs.

MIYAKE, S. (1943): Studies on the
crab-shaped Anomura of Nippon and
adjacent waters. Journ. Dept. Agr., Kyusyu
Imp. Univ. 7: 137-144, text figs. 56-59.

_SANKOLLI, K.N. (in the press): ‘On a
new species of Porcellanid crab (Deca-

poda Anomura) from India. J. Zool.
Soc. India 15(1).

——— & SHENOY, SHAKUNTALA (1965)
On the occurrence of tke tube-worm
Loimia medusa (Savigny) in Bombay
waters and its commensalism with a
porcellanid crab. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 62: 316-20.

SHEN, CHIA-JuI (1936): Notes on the
genus Polyonyx (Porcellanidae) with des-
cription of a new species. Bull. Fan.
Mem. Inst. Biol. P2king 6: 279, figs. 1-2.

Stimpson, W. (1858): Prodromus
descriptionis animalium evertebratorum
—Pars VII. Crustacea Anomura. Proc.
Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 10 : 229.

WALKER, A.O. (1887) : Note on a
collection of Crustacea of Singapore.
Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.).20:
116-117, pl. 9, figs. 1-3. .

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Reviews

i. THE BIRDS OF THE PALAEARCTIC FAUNA. Non-Passeri-
formes. By Charles Vaurie. pp. xx + 763 (25:5 x 18:5 cm.): H. F. &
G. Witherby Ltd., London, 1965: Price £7. 7s:

The first volume of this monumental work was reviewed in an
earlier number of the Journal (Vol. 56, pp. 307-9). There is perhaps no
ornithological institution or scientific ornithologist—more especially
one concerned with the Old World—who has not had constant recourse

to that volume since its publication in 1959. As predicted by the
reviewer and others, it has proved truly indispensable, and the measure

of its excellence and authoritativeness is the remarkable degree of
acceptance which Dr. Vaurie’s views and dicta have by and large received
from his scientific colleagues throughout the world.

This second volume dealing with the non-passerine birds brings to a
conclusion the ambitious task upon which Dr. Vaurie had embarked,
namely bringing up-to-date the knowledge of the geographical distri-
bution of palaearctic birds and stream-lining the taxonomy in Ernst
Hartert’s DIE VOGEL DER PALAARKTISCHEN FAUNA with modern con-
cepts. Like the previous volume this one also is based on the author’s
own: critical studies of the wealth of material in the American Museum
of Natural History, New York, the bulk of which formed the basis of
Hartert’s classic at Tring before it was sold by its owner, Lord Roths-
child, to the American Museum and transferred across the Atlantic.
That collection has since been vastly augmented by further acquisitions
over the years. Jn addition to all this, Dr. Vaurie had opportunities
to study relevant material in most of the great museums of the world,
including those in the USSR, by personal visits to these institutions
or by large-scale borrowings from them. His discussion of problems
with leading ornithologists and with specialists in various groups of
non-passerine birds fortified his views and has helped to add further
authoritativeness to the present work. |

Dr. Vaurie’s taxonomic observations and findings, accruing as his
studies progressed, were published from time to time as ‘ Systematic
Notes on Palaearctic Birds’ in American Museum Novitates in twenty
serial numbers (34-53). These are, in fact, comprehensive reviews and,
In part, revisions of the various groups summarized in this volume.
They form a very important adjunct to it and furnish invaluable
references. It is good, therefore, to know that a separate synopsis and
a complete index to this series are in course of preparation.

“pes

REVIEWS 293

The selected bibliography comprising some more recent general
works, check-lists, and regional books and papers bearing on the
Palaearctic Region forms a useful supplement to the bibliography given
in Vol. 1. This is followed, as before, by indices of English, French,
German, and Scientific names.

In congratulating Dr. Vaurie upon his herculean achievement
ornithologists will not omit to congratulate themselves upon the availa-

bility in this handy form of the wealth of carefully sifted first-hand
information, more particularly from the USSR which is usually denied

to most of us by inability to benefit from publications in the Russian
language.

The coverage of the volume—16 Orders, 46 Families many of them
divided into Subfamilies, 192 Genera with their spate of species and
subspecies—indicates the stupendous labour that has gone into its
making. The re-examination of this vast material and all but a few of
the measurements were made by the author himself.

There can be no complete finality in a work of this sort. Never-
theless, it does not seem rash to predict that these volumes will domi-
nate the field of palaearctic ornithology for as long as one can see, and
thereafter still continue to remain as indispensable as Hartert’s master-
piece is today.

ee oie

Z. SEASIDE PLANTS OF THE WORLD. By Edwin A. Mennin-
ger, D.Sc. pp. 303 (23 x 16 cm.). With 408 photographs. New
York, 1964. Hearthside Press Incorporated. Price $ 9.95.

The sub-title informs us that this book is meant to be a guide to the
planning, planting, and maintenance of salt-resistant gardens. As a
nurseryman who has for years catered for owners of seaside gardens the
author is well equipped to undertake the task; he has taken freely,
besides, of the experience of other gardeners.

The first problem of the seaside gardener, protection against salt,
sand, and sea, is dealt with generally in the opening chapters. These
include a chapter of wider applicability, on erosion and reclamation—
it is interesting to learn that as far back as 1307 a sea-weed (Ammophila
arenaria) was successfully used to halt shifting sand-dunes. This

introduction is followed appropriately by a list of plants suitable for

ground cover. They are arranged according to their toughness, those
capable of standing full exposure to the sea as on the beach (Belt 1),
those requiring a little protection (Belt II), those requiring much pro-
tection (Belt Ill). This arrangement, according to suitability for the

294 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

three different belts, is followed in the subsequent chapters, which deal
in turn with Vines, Grass and Lily-like Plants, Herbs and Sub-shrubs,
Shrubs for Seaside Landscaping, Trees, and Palms. There is a certain
amount of overlapping as it was not possible, nor would it have made
for convenience, to make a rigid distribution between these several
groups. The final chapter gives a short account of the way in which
these problems are dealt with in Australia and New Zealand, countries
in which there is a long length of sea-coast, an enormous wealth of
native salt-resistant plants, and wide variations in climatic conditions.
Short descriptions are given of the plants listed and many of them are
illustrated by photographs, to give laymen an idea of their appearance
and to help with their identification. There are also numerous lands-
cape photographs to show what can be done by skilful gardening.

It is common knowledge that, given suitable conditions, plants that
are natives of one country will readily grow in another, and sometimes
will even do well in a country with a different climate. So, this list of
2000 plants or more deriving from all the continents will be of use to
the gardener, wherever he may be. But he must be prepared to face
occasional disappointment, for it is not possible to know all the factors
that contribute to the successful growth of a particular plant and it is
only by actual experiment that he can find out how it will behave in
his garden. For the gardener who has known the joy of successful
experimenting the fear of disappointment can be no deterrent, and it! is
to such that the book is recommended.

Of interest to the general reader is a citation of an observation of
R. W. Read, botanist at the Fairchild Tropical Garden: ‘ There is
evidently some correlation between an arid or xerophytic environment
and a coastal or saline environment, for it has been frequently observed
that many palms found naturally only in desert regions flourish along
our sea coast. Some desert species even grow better in moist saline
soils than in the drier non-saline limestone or sand soils of south
Florida.’

A photograph from South Australia shows an expanse of sand about
ten feet above high tide mark covered with flowering Arctotis (A.
stoechadifolia). Another such photograph, also from South Australia,
shows Chrysanthemum frutescens in flower. Looking at these photo-
graphs one cannot resist asking the question: ‘If in South Australia,
why not in India?’ Who will make the experiment, or has this already
been done ? |

DEK

REVIEWS 295

3. MAMMALS OF THE WORLD, Vols. I and II. By Ernest
P. Walker and associates. Vol. I, pp. xlviiit+646; Vol. I, pp. viti+
647-1500 (26 x 18°5 cm.), numerous illustrations. Baltimore 1964.
The Johns Hopkins Press. Price Vols. I and II $25-00.

The opening sentences of the Foreword, ‘ The content and scope of
these volumes represent a unique and highly valuable contribution
to zoological literature. There is no other single series of books that
‘in themselves can be used as a basic source of reference concerning all
the known and present genera of mammalian life on this earth’,
precisely express the scope and value of this publication. Mr. Walker
and his associates are to be congratulated on the excellent result of their
effort which in Mr. Walker’s case involved nearly thirty years of devoted
labour in collecting material from published literature, in correspondence
with Mammalogists all over the world, and in the collection of
photographs of representative animals of the genera discussed.

The genus, as containing a group of species with many common
characters, has been chosen as the unit of description—a sensible
arrangement, considering the impossibility of adequately describing
the twelve to fifteen thousand species of known mammals. The two
volumes describe 1044 genera, included under 125 families and 19
orders of living mammals. The text includes general remarks on the
characters occurring (1) in all members of an Order, (2) in all members
of a Family. Under each genus, the common and scientific names,
number of species, range, measurement and weight, coloration, type
of body covering, structural peculiarities, habits, food, gestation period,
number of young in a litter, economic importance, and other known
facts are mentioned. Each genus described is illustrated by a
photograph or picture of a member species. The numerous photographs
of shrivelled museum skins are an woeful indication of the lack
of material on mammals. The reviewer hopes that in future editions
these photographs will be replaced by sketches.

The first volume includes a selected bibliography on mammals
and the third volume, which the reviewer did not have the opportunity
to see, contains exclusively, we are told, a comprehensive, general
bibliography of over 40,000 papers.

In an encyclopaedic work of this type, one can only comment
on the ‘familiar faces’, in this instance the Oriental Fauna. The
comprehensive information on each genus would be of value to
mammalogists and others requiring information on the mammals of this
region. One can safely assume that similar detailed information is
available on mammals of other faunal regions. The description of
the rarer genera includes the names of Institutions which have specimens.
It is- unfortunate that .the authors were not aware of the presence

296 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

in the Society’s collections of genera like Hesperoptenus, Tylonycteris,
and Otomops—the last mentioned represented by specimens of O.
wroughtoni, a species discovered and described in 1913 and seen again
only when these specimens were recovered in 1961 from the very cave
from which the types were collected. :

In a work of this magnitude it is not surprising if some errors creep
in. I find for instance that the distributions of Rhizomys pruinosus and
R. sinensis have been interchanged. A photograph of the Spiny Mouse,
Mus platythrix illustrates the genus Platacanthomys and has been
described in the legend as that of the Spiny Dormouse, Platacanthomys
lasiurus. These errors, which do not seriously detract from the
value of the publication, will no doubt be removed in the next edition.

J Cr Ds

4. BIRDS OF PREY OF THE WORLD. By Mary Louise
Grossman and John Hamlet. Photographs by Shelly Grossman. pp. 496
(32 x 24cm.). London 1965. Cassel & Co. Ltd. Price £ 6. 6s.

This magnificent volume containing a long and comprehensive
account of birds of préy of the world covers over 500 pages and
includes some 1400 illustrations, 70 in colour, and 283 monochrome
photographs.

It is divided into two main portions—the first a general account of
the groups, the second a brief account of 289 species of hawks and 133
of owls.

The chapters of the first part deal with (a) their history through
geologic times, (b) their many contacts with man including not only.
falconry but also their influence on art and literature since Babylonian
and earlier days, (c) their general ecology and habits, (d) the details of
structure which assist them in their hunting, and (e) their conservation.

This last chapter is of great interest and importance to us in India
as we are passing through the initial stages of a problem which has
not yet ended even in America. James Fergusson Lees in the Introduc-
tion says: ‘ Post-war prosperity (in Europe) has led to an enormous
increase in gun licences and introduced a new element of irresponsibility.
Many species have been hit hard by the use of organo-chlorine pesticides
in agriculture. ...’. The Bombay Wild Animals and Wild Birds
Protection Act, 1951, the most advanced legislation of its kind in India,
still lists birds of prey as ‘vermin’ and permits them to be killed in
and out of season, with or without reason !

The second section deals with the many genera and species through-
out the world.- In spite of subspecific differences being ignored, this is a —

REVIEWS 297

tremendous task and there are bound to be omissions and errors. We
notice that in the maps indicating the distribution, the several harriers
Circus macrourus, cyaneus, pygargus, and cinereus, are excluded
from India, while that for the Greater Spotted Eagle restricts
it to north-western India. Young Longbilled Vultures are said to be
entirely dark below streaked conspicuously with buff, but in our experi-
ence they are similar to the parents.

Many interesting facts are recorded, e.g. Goshawks chasing rabbits
on foot through brush (p. 251), Pernis walking and running on the
ground with ease of a corvine or gallinaceous bird (p. 219), and Ospreys
in North America breeding in dense colonies (p. 369).

Some of the colour photographs are the best I have ever seen, and so
are some of the black-and-white. But the fact that a disproportionately
large number of birds are shown in the actual act of killing their prey
cannot but leave the impression that the photographs were taken under
controlled and not natural conditions. The small number of pictures
and information regarding Indian species is noticeable.

However, the whole work was certainly an enormous undertaking
and, for the layman, is as nearly perfect as is possible.

HAs

5. PLANT EMBRYOLOGY: A Symposium. pp. vi + 274
(25x 16:5 cm.). Illustrated. New Delhi 1962. Council of Scientific &
Industrial Research. Price Rs. 20, or 40s.

This excellent publication is the report of an all-India Symposium on
Plant Embryology held under the auspices of the Biological Research
Committee of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research on 11-14
November 1960, at the Department of Botany, University of
Delhi.

As Professor Maheshwari, Chairman of the Biological Research Com-
mittee and Convenor of the Symposium, has indicated in the preface,
the CSIR has been giving much encouragement to the holding of
symposia and scientific conferences. This symposium on Plant Embryo-
logy was graced by the presence of the Vice-Chancellor of Delhi
University and the Director-General of the CSIR attended the Sympo-
sium. A list of the participants is not given.

Professor Maheshwari gave a review of the ‘ Past, Present and Future
of Plant Embryology’ (not included in this publication) and pointed
out that, although the study of plant embryology began in India only
about 30 years ago, it has already become one of the most well-deve-
loped branches of plant science in India.

298 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

During the symposium 29 papers were read in seven sessions presi-
ded over by seven of the foremost Indian workers in plant embryology.
All these 29 papers, with relevant illustrations, and a short preface by
the convenor form this published report.

On the last day of the Symposium a special session was held for a
discussion of the advancement of teaching and research in plant
embryology. In this session it was agreed that the time is ripe for the
production of an exhaustive volume on the Systematic Embryology of
Angiosperms on the lines of Schnarf’s VERGLEICHENDE EMBRYOLOGIE
DER ANGIOSPERMS or Metcalf & Chalk’s ANATOMY OF DICOTYLEDONS
AND MONOCOTYLEDONS. It was thought that if such a work can be written
through the initiative of Indian botanists with the co-operation of
colleagues abroad, it will be of great value all over the botanical
world.

The papers reported here cover a wide range of topics—from a
hypothesis (New approach on the Embryo of Monocotyledons) to new
facts on ovarian pollination (in Papayer and Eschscholzia). They
include information on in yitro cultures of nucelli and embryos (of
Citrus and Cuscuta) and the formation of male gametes in the pollen tube
of some crop plants besides several other interesting embryological
features.

As the cover of this publication declares, it highlights the progress
of plant embryology in India, to which the school of plant embryology
at the University of Delhi has made very valuable contributions and
established for itself a rightful place of pride. This publication is truly
an essential compendium of researches in plant embryology. It is to

be hoped that the other branches of botany will be similarly served by |

the Biological Research Committee of the CSIR by neve of symposia
to encourage teachers and research workers.

Pt V. BOLE,

Miscellaneous Notes

1. PARTIAL ALBINISM IN WHITEBELLIED RAT, RATTUS
NIVIVENTER HODGSON, FROM KHAST HILLS

(With one photograph)

Albinism is not uncommon in the genus Rattus Fischer, 1803. It is
frequently met with in Rattus raitus Linnaeus, and has been recorded by
Hossack (1907), Gibson-Hill (1950), and Harrison (1950). Gibson-Hill
(1950) and Joshee & Kamath (1963) have reported it in R. norvegicus
(Berkenhout). Harrison & Lim (1951) have recorded it in R. cremori-
yenter (Miller). So far as is known to us, albinism has not been record-
ed in R. .niviventer Hodgson. Hence, the present case of partial
albinism is considered worthy of record.

Partial albinism in Rattus niviventer Hodgson
1. Left side view; 2. Rightside view; 3. Dorsal view

While identifying the rats of the Khasi Hills, where Rattus niviventer
mentosus Thomas is quite common, we have come across a partial albino
specimen of this race ina lot of 8 specimens collected from Shillong

Peak, |

300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 62 (2)

The specimen is a male, measuring (in mm.) head and body 136,
tail 190, ear. 20, hind foot excluding claw 30.

The albinism occurs mainly on the posterior region and is found to
some extent on the forelegs (Photo, Figs. 1 and 2). Normally, the pure
white colour should be restricted to the belly up to the tip of the mouth
ventrally and to the under surface of the feet and toes; but in this
specimen it covers the whole right and left hindfeet with a sprinkling of
normal brown-coloured hairs on each. The rump is pure white extending
forward on both sides—on the right to nearly one-third of the head and
body length and a little less on the left.

The normal mid-dorsal colour extends to the tail separating the
white portions on both the sides (Photo, Fig. 3).

R. niviventer, according to Roonwal (1949), is essentially a rat of
the dense evergreen jungle and riverain jungle, favouring the vicinity of
hill-streams. The locality from which the present specimen was collect-
ed is also dense evergreen jungle far from human. habitation. Thus it
is unlikely that this instance of partial albinism is a result of the inter-
mixing of domestic rat with R. niviventer.

“ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

EASTERN REGIONAL STATION, A. S. RAJAGOPAL
SHILLONG, - A. K. MANDAL
May 4, 1965.
REFERENCES

Gipsof-HitL, C. A. (1950): Feral al- JosHet, A. K., & KAMATH, K. M. |
bino and piebald rats. J. Bombay nat. (1963): A _ piebald Rattus norvegicus |
Hist. Soc. 49 : 298. (Berkenhout) from Bombay. J. Bombay

Harrison, J. L. (1950): The occur- nat. Hist. Soc. 60 : 449-451.
rence of albino and melanic rats. ibid. Roonwa L, M. L. (1949) : Systematics,
49 : 548. ecology and bionomics of mammals

——— & Lim, B. L. (1951): Albinism studied in connection with Tsutsuga-
in Rattus cremoriventer. ibid. 49 : 780. mushi disease (Scrub Typhus) in the

Hossack, W. C. (1907): An account Assam-Burma war theatre during 1945.
of the rats of Calcutta. Mem. Indian Trans. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 3 : 67-122.
Mus-¥: 17,

2. BEHAVIOUR OF LESSER WHISTLING TEAL
[DENDROCYGNA JAVANICA (HORSFIELD)]
IN ALIPORE ZOO, CALCUTTA

(With a plate)

On my way to the Andamans in February 1964, [ was delayed for
a few days in Calcutta. The Alipore Zoo is always an attraction and I

i
i

spent some time very pleasantly there. The lake was full of Whistling |

Teal (Dendrocygna javanica), which spend the day here and leave at dusk
to feed many miles away. This bird is too slow a flier to afford much

(asog svppwmpdys : 070Y4d )

eynoe9 ‘007 aiodrpy ut (vowvavl
DUsAIOAPUACTT) [eI], SUITISIYAA JOSsa’T

‘90S ISI] ‘LVN AVaWog ‘Nanof

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES . 301

sport, but is shot at by all and sundry. In the Gardens, they settled on
the shore, less than 15 vards from where we sat and chatted.
Mr. R. K. Lahiri, the very active Superintendent, sent some people
round the lake, who put them up by banging tins and shouting. When
all the birds were in the air, they literally filled the sky and reminded
one of the duck shoots of the good old days. Mr. Lahiri said that he
had made various attempts to estimate their numbers, and thought there
were some 6000. birds. They returned to the lake after a few minutes
and were soon settled in peace. Later when we were not paying any
particular attention there was a gigantic. splash on the lake. My first
impression was that the birds had all risen again, but when we looked
there were no birds in the air and only a few remained scattered here
and there on the lake. It then dawned upon me that the birds in one
part of the lake, say 50 yards by 100 yards, had all dived together.
Lahiri said that this was a not unusual reaction to a bird of prey over-
head, but none was visible. The teal soon reappeared and kept on open-
ing their wings, probably to shake off the water. The simultanecousness
of their dive was something to be seen to be believed. Other ducks take
off the water as suddenly but, since they remain visible in the air, the
effect is not so startling. In the evening, I saw flight after flight, 15 to 30
at a time, going over the city, mostly high up and out of gunshot,
Outside the sanctuary, they are no’ tamer than elsewhere. Whistling
Teal do migrate locally and their numbers at the Zoo are said to vary
from time to time. This appears to be an excellent ee where they
could perhaps be captured and ringed.

75, ABDUL Feu ee STREET, - HUMAYUN Ae
BOMBAY. 3, ; re
February 23, 1965,

3. THE RED KITE MILVUS MILVUS (LINN.) IN ORISSA

A large flock of this species was repeatedly observed over several
days by Salim -Ali (1954) during March 1945 on the Little Rann of

Kutch. Shivrajkumar (1964) saw a single individual on 23.1i1.64 in

Saurashtra: We have similar evidence that its range extends to the east
coast of India, at least in winter.

On 8.1.63 near the shore off Balugaon on Lake Chilka we saw a soar-
ing kite which, by reference to Peterson et al. (1954) on the spot, we
identified as Milvus milvus. We discovered from Ripley (1961) that this
identification was unlikely. Neither of us had seen the species in any
other country. On 19.1.64 we accompanied Dr. Bernhard Rensch to
Puri where he recognized M. milyus with complete certainty, being

302 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

familiar with it in Europe. He is of course familiar with living birds not
only in India but in many other parts of Asia, and his certainty was un-
shaken by Ripley’s statements.

GENETICS AND BIOMETRY LABORATORY,

. GOVERNMENT OF ORISSA, Ss. D. JAYAKAR
BHUBANESWAR-3, H. SPURWAY
February 23, 1965.

REFERENCES

ALI, SALIM (1954): The Birds of Guja- RIPLEY, SIDNEY DILLON (1961): A
rat. I. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52: 374- Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakis-
458. tan. Bombay.

PETERSON, ROGER, MOUNTFORT, Guy, SHIVRAJKUMAR, Y.S. (1964) : New bird

& Hoitiom, P.A. D. (1954): A Field records for Saurashtra. J. Bombay nat.
Guide to the Birds of Britainand Europe. #ist. Soc. 61 : 446.
London.

4. OCCURRENCE OF THE LONGTOED STINT
CALIDRIS SUBMINUTUS (MIDDENDORFF)
IN NORTH BIHAR

Three species of stint, our smallest wader, winter in India. Out of
145 stints collected in Monghyr District, north Bihar, for ringing
between 23 November 1964 and 17 January 1965, 34 were Little Stints
Calidris minutus (Leisler), 109 Temminck’s Stints C. temminckii (Leisler),
and 2 Longtoed Stints C. subminutus (Middendorff). The presence of the
last is of particular interest as it has not been previously recorded from
Bihar. The range of the Longtoed Stint as given in Ripley’s SyNOPsiIS
(1961) is: ‘On winter migration, occurs in Assam, East Pakistan and
Ceylon’. The present record represents a westward extension of the
winter distribution of this eastern Palaearctic breeder. The measure-
ments (in mm.) of the specimen preserved, in the Society’s collection
bearing Register No. BNHS 22181, are: wing 89; tail 35; bill
(from the skull) 21-; middle toe 23.

In the hand, the Longtoed Stint can be easily distinguished from
the other two by its long middle toe, 22°5 to 25 mm., while in others
it is less than 20 mm. The middJe toe with claw is longer than the
tarsus in subminutus while in minutus and temminckii it is more or less

equal. Subminutus also has a longer hindtoe (5 to 6 mm.) which in
temminckii and minutus 1s shorter (3 to 4 mm.).

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, ! P. V. GEORGE

BOMBAY, 1-BR, Research Fellow
June 10, 1965.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 303

5. THE ASHY MINIVET [PERICROCOTUS DIVARICATUS
(RAFFLES)]: AN ADDITION TO THE INDIAN AVIFAUNAI

On 31 January 1965, while collecting birds at Funnel Hill about an
-hour’s drive from Bombay, I came across a mixed party of warblers and
flycatchers in a rather thick patch of forest. Among them was a pair of
unfamiliar birds calling to each other. They looked more like one of
the white wagtails. Their calls were quite unfamiliar, resembling the
harsh voice of a shrike rather than the melodious and pleasant trilling
call of minivets.

A specimen was secured and the first impression was that it might
be one of the Pied Shrikes of the genus Hemipus. Later, in the
evening along with Mr. Pereira of the Society, I saw two more pairs of
the same birds just at the foot of Funnel Hill. On further examination
of the specimen collected, I came to the conclusion that it was an Ashy
Minivet, Pericrocotus divaricatus, an opinion which was confirmed by
study of literature available at the Bombay Natural History Society. _
The species is not listed is Ripley’s SyNopPsis. The distribution given in :
the FAUNA is as follows :

‘ Breeding in Japan, Amur and most possibly Northern China, and
in winter extending to South China, the Indo-Chinese Countries,
Philippines, Sumatra, Borneo, Malay Peninsula, entering south Burma
as a very rare straggler only.’

It is curious to note that in all the literature consulted the Ashy
Minivet is considered to be not only a rare bird, even within its geogra-
phical range, but also the most outstanding and conspicuous species of
the genus.

On both the two occasions when I saw the minivets, I noticed that
they moved in pairs in patches of thick forest in the light foliage canopy
of trees about 20 feet in height. The specimen collected was in moult
but the condition of the flight feathers revealed that it had covered a very
long flight.

The specimen has been deposited in the collection of the Bombay
Natural History Society and bears Register No. BNHS 22152.

ST. XAVIER’S HIGH SCHOOL,

LOKMANYA TILAK MARG, A. NAVARRO, 5.).
BOMBAY, 1-BR,

February 20. 1965.

[As noted by Mr. Hurmayun Abdulali in his recent paper on ‘ The
Birds of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands’ (Journal 61: 557),
_ Pericrocotus cinereus Lafr. [=P. divaricatus (Raffles)] was recorded by
A. L. Butler (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12: 394) in the Andamans.
Butler’s specimen, however, was not preserved being badly damaged
and his record has been consistently ignored by later workers.—-EDs. ]

304 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

6. THE PALLAS’S GRASSHOPPER WARBLER LOCUSTELLA
CERTHIOLA RUBESCENS BLYTH FROM
| SOUTH INDIA

While collecting birds with mist-nets from reed beds (Phragmites
karka Trin.) growing by the side of paddy-field dykes in Rajapuram
Kayal (= Lake), c. 10 km. east of Alleppey, Kuttanad, Alleppey
District, Kerala, a female Pallas’s Grasshopper Warbler was netted on
10 May 1963. The specimen agrees with topotypical specimens of
Locustella certhiola rubescens in the Zoological Survey of India collected
from Calcutta. Its distribution according to Ripley’s SYNOPSIS is: ‘A
wintering form in Burma, East Pakistan, and India in the Calcutta
region, Assam (Khasia Hills ?), Andaman Is. and Ceylon.’

Locustella certhiola has not been reported from Ceylon since Legge
saw several examples and collected two in the Mutturajawella Swamps
in. February 1877 (G. M.. Henry 1955). Froin the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands we have only a sight record and a specimen collected
~ by Dr. W.L. Abbott and Mr. C. B. Kloss (Richmond 1903). The
author found the species to be rather common in Salt Lake, Calcutta,
from January to March.

Its occurrence in Kerala, S. India, is a new record for the distri-
bution of the species and race. Although Stuart Baker (F.B.1., Birds 2:
400) includes Orissa in the range of its distribution we are unable to
trace his source of information. a

The measurements of the specimen are : -wing 67 mm.; tail 56 mm.;
tarsus 20 mm. Plumage : fresh ; two outermost rectrices of only the
right side growing, evidently being replaced after accidental loss.

BomBAY NATURAL HISTORY Ee Sf Ghd To POV GEORGES

BoMBAY, 1-BR. . Py WGe Research Fellow
St, JOSEPH’S COLLEGE, ISAAC P. MATHEW
DEVAGIRI, Bs .

CALICUT, KERALA,
February 4, 1965.
; REFERENCES

Henry, G. M. (1955) : A Guide tothe Islands. Proc... U. S. Nat. Mus. 25
Birds of Ceylon. Oxford University (1288) : 287-314. ; :
Press. Riecey, S.D. (1961) : A Synopsis of -

RICHMOND, CHARLES W. (1903): Birds the Birds of India and Pakistan. Bombay
collected by Dr. W.L. Abbott and Mr. Natural History Society. :
C. B. Kloss in the Andaman and Nicobar

7. WHITEHEADED YELLOW-WAGTAIL [MOTACILLA
FLAVA LEUCOCEPHALA ‘(PRZEVALSKD ]
NEAR DELHI

On 11 April 1965 there was large-scale movement of yellow wagtails
alongside the Agra Canal, which takes off from Okhla near Delhi.
Most-of them were Sykes’s Yellow Wagtails (Motacilla flava beema), but

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 305

there were also some Greyheaded Wagtails (M. f. thunbergi) and a few
Yellowheaded Wagtails (M. citreola citreola). My eye alighted on a
‘Yellowheaded Wagtail’, when I realised that in fact it had a white
head. I had it under observation for over one minute presuming it to
be an aberrant specimen of the Yellowheaded Wagtail. But when I
~consulted the FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA IJ found listed the Whiteheaded
Wagtail (M. f. leucocephala), which apart from the white head, generally
resembles M. f. beema. This was almost certainly the bird I saw.

The only previous record of M. f. leucocephala, according to Stuart |
Baker and Ripley (SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN),
was one shot by Whistler on 3 May 1913 in Jhelum District, West
Punjab.

Stuart Baker says the Whiteheaded Wagtail has been found breeding
in Mongolia and Manchuria in May, June, and July. The first recorded
specimen was taken in Altai.

Has anyone else seen it in India?

REUTERS,

27 PRITHVI RAJ ROAD, PETER F. R. JACKSON
New DELHI 11,

April 12, 1965.

[Spring males are distinguishable from all other wagtails by the
almost pure white crown, nape, and ear-coverts, the last with a faint
greyish wash.—EDS. ]

8. NOTES ON INDIAN BIRDS 4—ON THE VALIDITY
OF ZOOTHERA CITRINA AMADONI (BISWAS)

In 1951, Biswas (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49 : 661) described a new
race of the Ground Thrush Jurdus citrinus amadoni which was said to
occur in Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, and north-eastern Madras Province. It —
was distinguished from the typical Zoothera citrina citrina (Latham) (Type
locality : Cachar) by its white throat, and from Z. c. cyanotus (Jardine &
Selby) (Type locality : Bangalore) by its larger wing and the comparative
absence of the olive wash on the head. Ripley in ‘The Thrushes ’, Postilla
No. 13 (1952) Footnote to p. 37 and the synopsis (1961 :527) synony-
mized this with cyanotus which is the only form accepted by him as re-
sident in peninsular India.

Recently I had occasion to examine the specimens in the Bombay
collection and was struck by the fact that several white-throated males,
collected by Salim Ali at Badrama and Simlipal Hills, Mayurbhanj, in
Orissa, and at Bastar and Kanker in eastern Madhya Pradesh, differed
prominently from those from further south and west in having their
heads an unsullied orange-chestnut almost as bright as in the typical
citrind.

306 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

No specimens from Chanda, Madhya Pradesh, the type locality of
amadoni were available to me, but birds of both sexes south of a line
from Songadh?, Navsari District, Gujarat, to Vizagapatam on the east
coast had smaller wings and a pronounced olive tinge on the head
(rendering it more yellowish khaki than chestnut). I assumed that
amadoni would be similar to those from Orissa and eastern Madhya
Pradesh, and a short note resuscitating this race on these differences was
sent to Dr. Biswas for his opinion. In his reply, Biswas maintained that
all recently collected males of amadoni also had an olive tinge on the
head and sent me 4 males from Balaghat, Madhya Pradesh, in support.

An examination of the material available (41 skins) inclines me to
the following conclusions : 2 3

1. Birds from Orissa and eastern Madhya Pradesh are quite dis-
tinct from those from the rest of India, being larger than and having
more orange-chestnut on the head than cyanotus, and deserve a name;

2. Birds from Jubbulpore and Balaghat (the latter marked ama-
doni by Biswas) have slightly sullied heads, but can be separated from
cyanotus by their larger wings and the greater amount of orange-chestnut
on the head.

Biswas’s type specimen, in the American Museum of Natural
History, was collected by Elwes in 1867, and it is possible that
‘foxing’ has masked the olive tinge on the head as has happened in
two females from Kanara (1890) and Bombay (1906) in the Bombay
collection.

Though no specimens from Chanda are available, it may be
accepted that they approach the Orissa birds in size and colour, as
stated in the original description, and the race amadoni must be
accepted, though it might have been better to place the type locality in
Orissa. Its range would be as specified by Biswas (loc. cit.)—Madhya
Pradesh, Orissa, and north-eastern Madras Province?.

Throughout the ranges of citrina, cyanotus, and amadoni the females —
resemble the males, except that they average smaller, show a distinct
olive tinge on the back between the head and the lower back, and
perhaps have a slightly darker head. This last character may be due
to the olive of the back extending on to the head. .

I am grateful to the authorities of the Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta, and St. Xavier’s High School, Bombay, for the loan of
specimens from their collections.

75 ABDUL REHMAN STREET,
BOMBAY 3, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

February 23, 1965.
1The single specimen, a male, has been included. with cyanotus, but the wing

(116 mm.) is larger, and the head which is yellow rather than chestnut does not

show the olive tinge.
2 Now Andhra Pradesh.—Ebs.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 307
9. RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS

Ring No. Date and place of Date and place of
and species ringing recovery Remarks
A-66091 22.9.1964. Hingolgadh) c. 16.5.1965. Fama- |Reported by Mr.
Emberiza (c. 22 N., 71 E.)| gusta, Cyprus (c.35°; Loucas Papettas
melano- Gujarat, India. N., 34° EB.)
cephala 2
AB-10606 17.3.1964. Manjhaul] 16.5.1964. At Nuya,! Reported by Bird-
Tringa glare-| (c. 25°23 N., 86°30) Mukhtuya Dist., Ringing Bureau,
ola E.), Monghyr Dist.,, Yakutian (c. 60°30 USSR
Bihar, India N., 116°10 E.)
B-3309 Tringa | 4.12.1964. do. 25.5.1965. 30 km. do.
glareola south of Yakutsk,|
Yakutian (c. 62 N.,
129°40 E.)
C-305 Anas 4,2.1964. do. 25.9.1964. 18 km. from) do.
crecca & Zheleznogorsk,
Irkutsk region (c.
56°35 N., 104°10 E.)
C-478 Anas 1,12.1964, do. 13.3.1965. At Yaz’ | do.
crecca @ (?) yavan, Fergana |
Region, Uzbekistan
(40°40 N., 71°45 E.)
C-1769 Anas 5.12.1964. do. 9.5.1965. Near Nizh- do.
crecca & ne-Ilimsk, Irkutsk |
5 region (57°20 N.,
103°15 E.)
C-1892 Anas 31.12.1964. do. 18.4.1965. 7 km. from do.
querquedula Karaganda Kazakh,
3 SSR (c. 49°50 N.,
73°10 E.) |
F-3569 Anas 16.3.1964. do. 26.5.1965. At Kyker, do.
clypeata & Tungokochen Dist.,
Chita region, USSR
(53°10 N., 115°40 E.)
_ C-675 Circus | 25.3.1962. Bharatpur,| 7.5.1965. Near Suly, do.
macrourus or| (c. 27°13 N., 77°32} Petropavlovsk region,
pygargus 2 E.), India Kazakh SSR (53°45,
N., 66°30 E.) |
C-1900 Anas 1.1.1965. Bakhri (c.| 18.4.1965. ‘ Kara-Kol do.
crecca 2 25°23 N., 86°30E.) Lace’, near Osaka-
Monghyr Dist., rovka, Karaganda |
India region, Kazakh SSR.
(50°33 'N., 72°35 E.)|
Moskwa 29.7.1959. Kurgald- | ?.11.1963. 20 miles | Mr. C. D. W.
E-555512 zhin Lake (c. 50°30] south of Lahore, | Savage
Anas creccag| N., 69°35 E.), Tze-| West Pakistan (c.
linograd region, 31°25 N., 74°10 E.)
Kazakh SSR |

All the birds, except the last, were ringed in the course of BNHS/
WHO Bird Migration Field Project.
BomMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,
BOMBAY, 1-BR,
July 27, 1965. EDITORS

308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

10. NOTE ON THE SEASONAL PREVALENCE OF
CULICOIDES SCHULTZEI (ENDERLEIN): SYNONYM
CULICOIDES OXYSTOMA KIEFFER (CERATOPOGONIDAE:

| DIPTERA)

‘i (With a plate)

The biting midge, Culicoides schultzei, is common all over India
(Sen & Dasgupta 1959). It has been collected in large numbers in
Rajasthan, Poona, and S. India (unpublished data, VRC). Species of
Culicoides are regarded as vectors of African Horse Sickness in S. Africa.
Though not definitely implicated in the spread of African Horse Sick-
ness in India in 1960, C. schultzei was the principal suspect. This was
because it was shown to feed on horses, and was widely distributed and
abundant. It seemed worthwhile, therefore, to keep track of its seasonal
prevalence.

The observations reported here were made at a village five miles east
of Vellore, North Arcot District, Madras State. The population of the
village was about 600, and the main crops were paddy and sugarcane.
There were several wells with electric pumps in the area and it was pos-
sible to have three crops of paddy a year.

METHOD

Culicoides were trapped on sticky traps made by stretching brown
paper on embroidery frames, 10 in. in diameter, and smearing both sides
with castor oil. Two frames were hung in each of five cattle-sheds.
Insects, principally Culicoides, were trapped on the castor oil. The
brown papers were examined and changed twice a week.

RESULTS

C. schultzei was the only species of Culicoides taken in large numbers
on the sticky traps. C. orientalis and C. peregrinus were occasionally
taken. C. anophelis, though often found attached to the abdomens of
mosquitoes caught in the same area, did not appear in sticky trap
collections.

The Figure shows the number of C. schultzei taken on the traps :

every week from 14 September 1960 to 2 January 1963 together with
rainfall data for the same village. Twelve year averages of maximum and
minimum temperatures at Vellore are given in the Table on p. 309.
Culicoides collections were high during the rains from about August
to November and low for the rest of the year.

Usually females were more abundant in the catches than Hebe Of
the 17,796 females of C. schultzei collected in the first 81 weeks 23-89%
were unfed, 72°5% were freshly gorged with blood, and 3°7% were gravid.

‘ww “TI WdNIVe

9181S SvIpe
PLIST FONW YON “OIOTIA JO ISVS Soft AY OSETIA v “IOJ vyep [[eyurer pue ‘ye tazyjnyos saplosynD Jo Yyor~ed ps

eG} 's6) O96)

930 AON 190 d3S ONY TAF NAT AUWw UdW YUM G24 RYE O3G AON 1950 d3S ONY TAF NAF AVI dv YYW 634 NYP 930 AON 150 d3S
!

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 309

It seems likely therefore that they enter the cattle-sheds to feed, presum-
ably on the cattle.

TABLE

12-YEAR (1950-1961) AVERAGES FOR MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM TEMPERATURES
IN °F, AT VELLORE

~ Month Te etre
|

January ae 84°37 65°07
February x 89°18 66°07
March on 94°85 70°68
April eA 98°42 77°00
May a 100°75 79°81
June a 96°76 79°37
July a 93°30 Tse
August is 93-41 76°93,
September +o 92°73 75 95
October " 89°53 73°56
November a 85°08 69°17
December = 82°96 65°53

Culicoides larvae have been found occasionally in paddy-field water.
Attempts to rear them were not successful. However, several pupae
were collected from a corner of a fallow field, where there was a thick

scum on the water. These were brought to the laboratory, where 3 male
and 4 female C. schultzei emerged.

VIRUS RESEARCH CENTRE?, R. REUBEN
POONA,
March 24, 1965.

REFERENCE

SEN, P., & Dascupta, S. K. (1959): gonidae: Diptera). Ann. ent. Soc. Amer.
Studies on Indian Culicoides (Ceratopo- 52: 617-630.

1 The Virus Research Centre is jointly maintained by the Indian Council of Medi-
cal Research and the Rockefeller Foundation. The Centre also receives a grant from
the National Institutes of Health, U.S.A., from PL 480 Funds,

310 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

11. INSECT FAUNA OF NEPAL: PART I.
CURCULIONIDAE

(With a map)

As a member of the Indian Agricultural Research Institute Ex-
pedition to Nepal, one of the authors (SRW) made insect collections
from there; the present paper deals with the weevils collected.
The party trekked from Butwal to Muktinath via Tansen, Pokhara,
Birethanthi, Tatopani, and Jhomsum, and then back to Pokhara (see
Map). The trek lasted from 31 March to 15 May 1961.

The weevils collected were identified in part in the British Museum,
and the rest with the help of the National Pusa Insect Collection main-
tained in the Division of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research
Institute,“New Delhi, to which collection all the material now collected
has been added. The weevils fall under the following 18 genera and 28
species and number over 200 specimens (excluding those of Sitophilus
oryzae Linn.), The genera marked * have already been noted from
Nepal (Kono 1959, and von Dalla Torre & Voss 1930). The remaining
genera and 27 species (excluding S. oryzae) constitute new records for
that country. Of the collection, the genus Telephae and the species
marked f¢ are not represented in the National Pusa Insect Collection,
and hence are new additions.

DETAILED ACCOUNT OF THE COLLECTION

+1. Acanthotrachelus sp. One example. Collected at Jhomsum
(c. 2703 m.) on 25-4-61.
+2. Apion sp. 1. Six examples. Collected at Modikhola (near Bire-
thanthi c. 1115 m.) on 14-4-61.
+3. Apion sp. 2. One hundred and forty examples. Most of these
specimens were collected from an Adathoda vasica plant at Shishnikhola
(c. 620 m.) on 31-3-61. The plant was literally swarming with these
weevils. This species was also collected on Citrus at Dana (c. 1420 m.)
on 20-4-61 and 7-5-61, at Mashem (c. 1200 m.) on 31-3-61, at Karadi-
khola. (near Bhomre c. 650 m.) on 3-4-61, at Ulleri (c. 2019 m.) on
15-4-61, at Ghara (c. 1821 m.) on 8-5-61, and at Birethanthi on 12-5-61.
4. Apion sp. 3. One example. Collected at Mashem on 31-3-61.
The salient points that separate these three species from each other
are given in Table at p. 312.
5. Apion benignum Fst. Three examples. Collected from a fig tree at
Birethanthi on 13-5-61, on a wild plant near Mashem on 31-3-61, and on
Adathoda vasica at Shishnikhola on 31-3-61.

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOc.

Mustang o

Sj axe

cS
‘ Depre
5 %

Moutikhet

y
rg
z
hemitce? Malunga ge CAMP UP
Fleder asmwe ROUTE

@ CAMP DOWN

i scwiny
if

r) “a Butwal

Insect Fauna of Nepal. Curculionidae
Map showing area in which collections were made

s(n Ap Ali Me MND ting

: | *
;
|

vibe

duu: Wai ie

' " a

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES » oa

6. Apion clavipes Gerst. Two examples. Collected from wheat
plants at Dumre (c. 650 m.) on 1-4-61 and at Mashem on 31-3-61.
*7, Apoderus blandus Fst. Two examples. Collected at Nuwankot
(c. 1475 m.) on 5-4-61 and at Modikhola on 14-4-61.
8. Balaninus nigricollis Mshll. Twoexamples. Collected at Pokhara
(c. 967 m.) on 8-4-61.
*9, Centrocorynus scutellaris (Gyll.). Six examples. Collected at
Bhagnas (near Dhobadi c. 900 m.) on 2-4-61 and at Ghara on 8-5-61.
10. Emperorhinus defoliator Mshll. One example. Collected at
Mattikhan (c. 1350 m.) on 5-4-61.
11. Lixus linguidus Fst. One example. Collected at Ghara on
21-4-61.
712. Lobotrachelus lepidotus Mshll. One example. Collected at
Modikhola on 14-4-61. |
+13. Lobotrachelus urenae Mshll. Two examples. Collected from
Adathoda vasica at Shishnikhola on 31-3-61.
714. Metialma sp. Two examples. Collected at Ghara on 8-5-61.
15. Metialma ? anisomelis Mshll. Nine examples. Collected from
Adathoda vasica plant at Shishnikhola on 31-3-61 and from fig tree at
Birethanthi on 13-5-61.
+16. Metialma cordata Mshll. Four examples. Collected from fig
and Citrus at Birethanthi on 13-5-61 and at Modikhola on 14-4-61.
Metialma sp. is comparatively larger than both anisomelis and
cordata. It also differs in having the funicular segments together equal
to the scape and in the pronotum being without a distinct raised area.
17. Myllocerus kashmirensis Mshll. Two examples. Collected at
Ghasa (c. 1958 m.) on 21-4-61, and 22-4-61.
+18. Myllocerus planoculis Mshll. One example. Collected at Pok-
hara on 8-4-61.
19. Myllocerus viridulus Mshll.- Two examples. Collected from
peach at Ghasa on 21-4-61. a‘
~20. Nanophyes sp. Eleven examples. Collected from Adathoda
vasica plant at Shishnikhola on 31-3-61, on Sarcococa sp. leaves at
Karadikhola on 3-4-61, and at Modikhola on 14-4-61.
*21. Paroplapoderus (Paroplapoderus) bihumeratus (Jek.). One exam-
ple. Collected at Mattikhan (c. 1350 m.) on 5-4-61.
~22. Ptochus percusus Fst. One example. Collected at Chandrakot
(near Lumley c. 1586 m.) on 13-4-61.
723. Rhynchaenus sp. 1. One example. Collected on Citrus at Dana
on 7-5-61.
724. Rhynchaenus sp. 2. Three examples. Collected from peach at
Ghasa on 21-4-61, at Nuwankot on 5-4-61, and at Modikhola on 14-4-6].
These two species of Rhynchaenus can be separated from each other
by the small yellowish beak and elytra without yellowish patches in

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

312

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 313

sp. 1 and by the long brownish beak and elytra with yellowish patches
in sp. 2.

25. Sitona crinitus Oliv. Two examples. Collected from barley at
Ulleri on 19-4-61 and at Chandrakot on 13-4-61.

*26. Sitophilus oryzae Linn. Several examples. Coilected at various
‘places all along the route from paddy, maize, and wheat in storage.
However, the other species of Sitophilus, S. sasakii, reported earlier
(Kono 1959) is conspicuous by its absence in the present collection.

27. Tanymecus ? tetricus Fst. One example. Collected at Suikhet
(c. 1187 m.) on 14-5-61. ;
+28. Telephae sp. One example. Collected at Birethanthi on 13-5-61.

The authors are grateful to Dr. S. Pradhan, Head of the Division of
Entomology, for the facilities provided to process the collection and to
Dr. M. G. Ramdas Menon, Systematic Entomologist, I.A.R.I., for
going through the manuscript and for making some very valuable
suggestions. They are also grateful to His Majesty’s Government,
Nepal, and Shri Harbhajan Singh, leader of the party, for facilities given
for making these collections. The assistance rendered by the British
Museum (Natural History) in establishing the identity of a number of
species is gratefully acknowledged.

DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY,

INDIAN AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE, S. R. WADHI
New DELHI 12, ; BALDEV PARSHAD
December 10, 1964.

REFERENCES

Kono, T. (1959) : Rice weevilin Fauna VON DALLA Torre, K. W., & Voss, E.
and Flora of Nepal Himalayas. Scientific (1930): Coleopterorum Catalogus. (Cur-
results of the Japanese Expedition to culionidae: Apoderinae), pars 110: 5,23,
Nepal Himalayas 1952-53. Vol. and 29.

1 : 383-385. Edited by Kihara.

12. INSECT ATTACKS ON AND DISINFESTATION OF
SOME EDIBLE FUNGI IN INDIA

Exporters of the edible fungi, Cantharellus cibarius Fr. and Morchella
esculenta Linn., which grow in the Himalayan region of Jammu and
Kashmir State, finding difficulty in the acceptance of consignments due
to presence of insect infestation, brought the matter to the notice of the
Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage. The results of
some investigation undertaken by the Directorate, for disinfestation of
stocks of fungi are reported here.

The two fungi are stored for varying periods between collection and
marketing. Insect infestation may occur either in the natural habitat

314. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

or from cross-infestation from other commodities in the store, or from
both these sources. From C. cibarius the insects recorded were a tiny
beetle belonging to the family Cisidae (order Coleoptera)! and a rust-
red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum Herbst.), and from M. esculenta
the cigarette beetle (Lasioderma serricorne F.). The extent of infestation
and its possible source and the nature of the damage are set out below.

INFESTATION

The dried specimens of Cantharellus cibarius were attacked by the
Cis beetle by making round or elongate holes on the surface of the pileus
and the stipe alike and eating the soft pithy core from the inside; on
pressure a mass of brownish powder was given out. Severely damaged
mushrooms showed innumerable holes. As many as 30 adults were
found per mushroom. |

The beetle is reddish brown in colour, 2 mm. long, head deflexed
and concealed under the pronotum, antennae clubbed, dorsal surface of
the body covered with yellowish pubescence arranged on the pronotum
on either side of the mid-longitudinal line. The head of the male bears
a pair of minute horn-like projections on the frons, and the pronotum
another pair, bigger and raised, on the anterior margin. In the female
the projections are wanting. |

As Cis beetles occur on dead wood and fungi (Beeson 1941) it is
probable that the initial source of infestation is the decaying wood over
which C. cibarius grows and that the pest multiplies later on the fungi
during transport and storage.

As Tribolium castaneum is a surface feeder, the damage inflicted by it
is not as severe as that of the Cis beetle. It has a wide host range and the
infestation on the fungi is presumably from cross-infestation from other
stored agricultural commodities.

The dried specimens of Morchella esculenta were attacked by adults
and larvae of Lasioderma serricorne. Minute round holes in the surface
led to irregular galleries inside. Severely damaged morels were hollow
and yielded powdery matter on tapping. As many as 8 adults were re-
corded in one morel. The infested commodity is unfit for consumption.
The green stage of the more! has been reported to be attacked by mag-
gots (Vasudeva 1956).

L. serricorne occurs as a serious pest of tobacco, but has been
reported to attack coriander, cumin, turmeric, chillies, and ginger

(Thomas 1946). Morchella appears to be a previously unreported host —

of the pest.

1 Specimens have been sent to the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard
University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A., for identification,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 4 315
DISINFESTATION

Infested stock of C. cibarius and M. esculenta were fumigated with
methyl bromide in Delhi. Fumigation was carried out in a room made
gas-tight by pasting paper on the doors, windows, and ventilators. In
all, 90 kg. of the mushroom and 60 kg. of the morel packed in five
plywood tea-chests were fumigated at a density of 1 lb. per 1000 cu. ft.,
with an exposure period of 45 hours at a temperature between 21° C.
and 33° C. After fumigation the room was opened and, after thorough
aeration for four hours, the stocks were examined for determining the
efficacy of methyl bromide. No surviving insects could be collected from
the whole stock and, even after one year’s storage, no living insects were
observed on the stored fumigated material.

The fungi treated in the dry state with methyl bromide and aerated
as described are unaffected as regards both taste and edibility and, as no
toxicity remains after aeration, may safely be eaten. No chemical
change in the fungus attributable to fumigation has been reported or
found. The treatment, however, does not protect the fungus against
cross-infestation. So proper storage of fumigated fungi in insect-free
godowns is necessary.

DIRECTORATE OF PLANT PROTECTION B. K. VARMA
QUARANTINE AND STORAGE, S. P. GURWARA

MINISTRY OF FOOD & AGRICULTURE,

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

New DELHI,

February 12, 1965.

REFERENCES

BEESON, C. F.C. (1941): The Ecology grains in India. Entomology in India,
and Control of the Forest Insects of India Silver Jubilee number of Indian Journal
and the Neighbouring Countries : 180. of Entomology : 352-358.

THomas, P. M. (1946): Warehousing VASUDEVA, R. S. (1956): The Wealth
of agricultural commodities other than of India. Raw Materials, F. G. 4: 87,

13. COLLECTING MOTHS BY A MERCURY VAPOUR
LAMP IN THE SURAT DANGS, GUJARAT STATE:
AN EXPLANATION

Mr. D. G. Sevastopulo, P. O. Box 5026, Mombasa, writing with
reference to the paper ‘ Collecting moths by a mercury vapour lamp in
the Surat Dangs, Gujarat State’, published at pp. 281-294 of Volume
61, condemns as non-scientific the listing of genera in alphabetical
sequence. He also points out that some of his distribution records from
Calcutta have not been listed.

316 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

In reply, the authors explain that as their paper is addressed
mainly to general readers and field entomologists they have followed a
method sanctioned by previous practice—see C.F.C. Beeson (1941) :
THE ECOLOGY AND CONTROL OF THE FOREST INSECTS OF INDIA AND THE
NEIGHBOURING COUNTRIES ; and M. S. Mani & Santokh Singh (1961 and
1962): ‘ Entomological Survey of Himalaya’, published in volumes 58 —
to 60.

An errata slip is issued separately to correct errors and omis-
sions pointed out by Mr. Sevastopulo.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

BomMBAY, 1-BR, EDITORS
April ot 965.

14. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE TUBE-WORM |
LOIMIA MEDUSA (SAVIGNY) IN BOMBAY WATERS AND ITS
COMMENSALISM WITH A PORCELLANID CRAB.

(With one plate)

While digging for Thalassinids mud-lobsters at Chowpatty, Bombay,
on 14 Jan. 1964, a porcellanid crab (Plate, c and d) was seen emerging
from the tube of a tube-worm Loimia medusa (Savigny) [Annelida :
Terebellidae] (Plate, a andb). The crab was identified as Polyonyx sp.
(Crustacea: Anomura). Further taxonomic determination was not
possible as the crab was not represented in the collection of Polyonyx
material with the senior author and did not agree with the descrip-
tion of any known species. The crab is being described separately
by the senior author!. The present paper records behaviour studies of
the two associated animals Loimia and Polyonyx, which were always
found together in several collections made subsequently.

In India, ZL. medusa has been recorded on the east coast from Madras
by Fauvel (1930 and 1953) and from Krusadai Island by Gravely
(1927), but without any mention about its commensalism. Hence, this
is the first record of the worm as a commensal and of its occurrence
on the west coast of India.

From previous records, the association of Polyonyx with other
animals seems to be a common feature. Miyake (1945) found P. utinomi
and P. macrocheles both commensal with Chaetopterus. Johnson (1958)
described P. macrocheles, P. utinomi, and P. sinensis in association

1See K. N. Sankolli: ‘On a new species of commensal porcellanid crab,
Polyonyx loimicola sp. noy. from India: (Crustacea, Anomura, Porcellanidae)’, at
pp. 285-291 above,

JouRN. BomMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc.

Loimia medusa (Savigny) and Polyonyx loimicola

a. Worm without tube. Note the swollen condition.

6. Broken tuba with the

worm inside. c. Commensal crab, male. d. Commensal crab, female

(natural size)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 317

with Chaetopterus sp., P. cometes and P. transversum with the bivalve
Aspergillum, and P. telestophilus on the branches of an Alcyonarian,
Telesto sp. Haig (1960) describes P. quandrangulatus as commensal
with Chaetopterus vario pedatus, mentioning that a the larger tubes had
the crabs in them.

From India, only two species of Polyonyx, viz. P. obesulus and P.
hendersoni have been recorded, and a third is being described (in the
press, Sankolli). Of these obesulus is found to occur in sponges (Grave-
ly, op. cit.) and as a crevice-dwelling form (Johnson, op. cit.) ;
hendersoni, though not living in association with any other animal,
occurs in colonies of corals and sponges (Johnson, op. cit.) ; and the
new species is found to occur in sponge colonies. None of these three,
however, has been reported as a true commensal. Besides Polyonyx,
interesting observations have been made on the association of Porcel-
lanella sp. with the sea pen Pteroides esperi by Jones (1959).

FIELD OBSERVATIONS

The tubes of L. medusa project $ to 2 in. above the ground and
can be easily spotted during low tide in the intertidal zone. The exterior
opening of the tube measures at most 4 in. in diameter and the
length of the tube varies between 8 and 12 in. Attempts to take
out the entire tube with the worm in it were not successful. The
tubes were found mostly on the leeward side of stones or boulders,
lying either in sand or in a mixture of sand and mud, where
generally Thalassinids, especially Upogebiids, abound. It was often
observed that the tubes ran almost parallel to the burrows of the
Upogebiids. Each tube is unbranched and is composed mainly of
calcareous pieces and sand grains cemented together by a sticky sub-
stance. The tube did not wrap the worm along its attachment to
the rocky substratum.

The worm is 8 to 10 in. long, brownish green in colour, with whitish
tentacles, much-branched brownish red gills, and red ventral plates.

The commensal crabs are always found in a pair inside a_ tube.
They are hairy and light-brown in colour, matching well with the tube.
Most of the females were in berried condition.

OBSERVATIONS IN CAPTIVITY

The behaviour of the worm and the commensal crabs was studied
independently and also in relation to each other in a series of small
aquarium tanks, each measuring 12 in. x 9 in. x 9in. For simulat-
ing the natural habitat, about 3 in. layer of coarse sand gathered from

318 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

the locality where they were collected was spread out on the bottom
of the tanks.

The worms, without tubes or with parts of broken tubes, displayed
vigorous rhythmic dilations ahd contractions of the girth of the body,
the movements originating from the posterior end of the trunk and pro-
gressing to the anterior end. These movements were relatively much
less vigorous in worms with almost intact tubes.

The worms, especially those deprived of their tubes, would ex-
tend their tentacles and contract them immediately on the slightest
mechanical disturbance, e.g. if the tentacles or the body were touched
with a finger or a glass rod. After a while, if left undisturbed, the
activity would be resumed. Ifa tentacle came in contact with a
shell piece in the sand, it would start contracting bringing the shell piece
with it towards the head end, at the same time repeatedly rolling it as
though something sticky was being secreted on to it. After a while
the piece would be dropped near the head end. Though this behaviour
continued for 8 to 12 hours, the worm failed to build a tube. It would
remain contracted in length with occasional attempts to build a new
tube, but there would be vigorous pulsations in girth and the main part
of the body would continue swollen for hours. In the swollen state
the girth was 2 to 24 times the normal girth (slightly less than 4 in.)
inside the tube. The naked worms survived for 5-7 days but a few
died even earlier than 48 hours.

With a view to increasing the survival period and assisting the worm
in building a new tube, plastic and rubber tubes of suitable diameter
and length were tried but without success as the worm wriggled out of —
the tube almost immediately after introduction.

Further observations were made with specimens provided with partly
broken tubes of 1 to 3 in. length. The shell pieces rolled by the tenta-
cles near the head end, instead of being just dropped as in the case of
naked worms, were stuck on to the anterior end of the broken tube by
the tentacles. These pieces could not be easily pulled out with a forceps,
indicating that the shell pieces or sand particles were pasted with an
adherent, which is probably secreted by the collar or oral region of the
worm. The adherence of the shell particles to the tentacles suggests
that the tentacles are also capable of secreting mucous-like sticky
substance. 3

The tube material was thus added piece by piece till, in nearly two
hours, about 4 in. length of new tube was added to the anterior end of
the old tube. After adding the new portion in this manner, the worm
gradually pushed itself inside till the whole animal was covered by the
tube. The building of the tube, however, continued till it reached a
length of 10-12 in. and this was achieved within 48 hours. The length —
of the rebuilt tubes, often ranged from 18-24 in., the tubes many a time

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 319

taking a zig-zag course, which might have been due to the limited depth
of the sand column and other artificial conditions in the experimental
tanks. The tubes always had two openings, one at each end,

The worms with the rebuilt tubes ghrived well for as long as 50 to 90
days in the laboratory.

The tube thus constructed was composed mainly of shell pieces.
Here too the tubes were formed against a hard surface, like that offered
by the bottom glass or the bitumen coating along the angles of the tank.
The tube when formed on the glass surface had a transparent side,
devoid of shell and sand particles. This rendered it possible to make -
observations on the worm and its commensals while inside the tube, for
the tanks were supported on a stand 6 ft. in height, open from below,
permitting necessary observations to be made through the bottom.

The commensals invariably held on to the inner surface of the tube
and kept their dorsal surface in contact with the body of the worm,
behaviour which lessens the danger of hurt to the soft-bodied host.
Generally, one crab was found near the head end and the other near
the trunk region of the worm. If the worm was disturbed gently, it
would either double back on itself or retract and go some distance
inside the tube away from the source of disturbance, and the crabs
would move along with the worm. After some time, if left undisturbed,
the worm would come back to the opening and the crabs would
accompany it. If, however, the disturbance was repeated many times
or was of vigorous intensity, the worm would move backwards rapidly
to the other end of the tube and, a few minutes later, its tentacles might
be seen exposed at this opening ; the crabs, however, would normally
remain in their original positions.

On muddy water with Artemia nauplii being introduced near the
opening of the tube, the worm would immediately reach out to the
Opening and the activity of the tentacles would be increased accom-
panied by intermittent jetting out of water from the mouth of the tube.
Now, both the crabs would come towards the head end of the worm
and rapid sweeping action of their third maxillipeds could be seen as
though they were feeding.

It was equally interesting to study the behaviour of the commensals.
Alone or in a pair the crabs lived happily in the company of the worm.
If they were kept separated from the host and its tube, they were found
dead the very next day. If, however, a small or large piece of empty
tube was provided, the crab lived inside it for about a month or so. If,
now, a worm in its tube was introduced into the tank, the crab would
eventually harbour with the host. Crabs, dislodged from their hosts
with tubes in the same tank, crawled frantically about and, when they
came near the tube or the tentacles of the worms, would immediately
make attempts to enter into the tube. During this process, attempts to

320 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

dislodge them while still outside the tube made them hold fast to any
part of it. On their side the worms did not seem dependent for their
welfare on the presence or absence of the commensal crab or crabs.
Attempts were made to study,»the hatching of the eggs since most of
the female commensal crabs were ovigerous. The eggs successfully
hatched only when the crabs were kept along with their hosts in tubes.
If a berried female had either a host without a tube or a tube without
a host, the eggs were shed unhatched, though the crab was apparently in
normal condition.. Hence, the association of the commensal crabs
with the host in its tube appears to be a necessity for a successful
hatching. :

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, Director of Fisheries, Maha-
rashtra, for giving us facilities for this study, and to Dr. H. G. Kewal-
ramani, Senior Scientific Officer, for his constructive criticism.

TARAPOREVALA MARINE BIOLOGICAL
RESEARCH STATION, K. N. SANKOLLI
BOMBAY, SHAKUNTALA SHENOY

March 8, 1965.

15. A NEW SPECIES OF PANICUM
COLORATUM LINN. COMPLEX

(With two plates)

Panicum simpliciflorum Jauhar et Joshi, sp. nov.

Affinis Panico colorato Linn., a quo tamen differt praecipue
(i) culmis gracillimis, penitus glabris, (41) foliis brevibus, angustis,
glabris, (ii1) panicula simplici, sparse ramosa, racemi instar, (iv) spiculis
brevibus, subacutis, (v) partibus floralibus (glumis et lemmate inferiore)
rarioribus et inconspicue nervosis, et (vi) structura distincta
epidermali foliorum monstrante ‘cellulas longas’ longas et angustas,
ornatas parietibus perpendicularibus tenuiter undulatis et inconspicue
cuticulatis. | 2

Gramen perenne, gracile, alte caespitosum, dense fasciculatum,
stenophyllum, glabrum, tetraploideum, habitu erecto fruticoso. Culmi
90-110 cm. alti, 5-8-nodi, teretes, ad 1:6 mm. crassi; nodi glabri.
Folia brevia, angusta, acuminata, glabra, nervo medio inconspicuo ;
folium secundum 14-20 cm. longum, 0°3-0°6 cm. latum; vaginae
foliorum glabrae. Ligula 1:3-1‘5 mm. longa, fimbriata. Inflorescentia —
sparse ramosa, racemi instar, paniculata, 12-20 cm. longa, 6-9 cm,
lata ; rami secundarii emergentes erachide principe supportant spiculas

Journ. Bombay NAtT. Hist. Soc. PLATE IT

Ta ¢
: ig | . -.
4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Panicum simpliciflorum Jauhar et Joshi, sp. nov.: a culm with panicle, spikelet,
and constituent parts of a spikelet

| 1. Culm with a simple, raceme-like panicle; 2. A portion of leaf showing ligule ;
| 3. A pair of spikelets (note the sub-acute apices); 4. Lower glume, a short, orbicular structure,
|Inconspicuously 1i-nerved; 5. Upper glume; 6. Lower lemma; 7. Lower palea with apical
Margins serrulated; 8. Upperlemma; 9. Upper palea; 10. Pistil and stamens

JouRN. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE II

mm.

Panicum coloratum L.: a culm with panicle, spikelets, and
constituent parts of a spikelet

A;
1. Culm with effuse panicle; 2. A portion of leaf showing ligule; 3. A pair of spike
lets; 4. Lower glume; 5. Upper glume; 6. Lower lemma; 7. Lower palea wit
serrulated margins; 8. Upperlemma; 9. Upperpalea; 10. Pistil and stamens. |

Note conspicuous nervation of the glumes and lower lemma.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 321
geminas, longe inter se distantes. Spiculae subacutae, flaccidae, 2-2-
2°5 mm. longae, 2-florae, flore inferiore staminato, superiore vero
hermaphrodito. Gluma inferior brevis (0°8-1:1 mm. longa), orbicularis,
spiculam amplectens, inconspicue l-nervia. Gluma superior ut lemma
inferius, 5-7-nervia, nervis inconspicuis. Palea inferior 2-nervia,
marginibus debiliter dentatis, hyalina. Flos hermaphroditus fere
ovalis forma, plano-convexus ; lemma coriaceum, laevigatum. Stigmata
‘Tyrian’ purpurea (Ridgway 1912). Antherae 1-0-1-4 mm. longae,
citrinae.

_ Oriundus ex Australia, in speciem distinctam elevatus post cyto-
taxonomicam investigationem, typus positus in herbario sectionis
botanicae Instituti Indici Agriculturae ad New Delhi sub numero
P. P. Jauhar 2: isotypi, P,P. Jauhar 2 A, B, C, deponendi in herbario
ad Dehra Dun, ad Calcuttam et ad Kew in Anglia.

Panicum simpliciflorum Jauhar et Joshi, sp. nov.

The species is allied to Panicum coloratum L, (Plate II) but differs
from it chiefly in having: (i) very thin, perfectly glabrous culms,
(ii) short, narrow, glabrous leaves, (iii) a simple, scantily-branched,
raceme-like panicle, (iv) short, sub-acute spikelets, (v) fewer and
inconspicuously-nerved floral parts (glumes and lower lemma) (Plate I),
and (vi) long and narrow ‘long cells’ with feebly rippled and
inconspicuously cuticularised anticlinal walls. The following table
shows, in bare outline, the broad points distinguishing the two species
(for details, see Jauhar 1963): |

P. simpliciflorum Jauhar

Panicum coloratum L. et Joshi, sp. nov.

Character

Morphological features

(i) Culms

(ii) Leaves and
Leaf-sheath

(iii) Inflorescence
(iv) Spikelets

’ -(v) Nervation of
floral parts
(vi) Foliar

epidermal
pattern

Medium thick to _ thick,
glabrous to glabrescent culms
with or without nodal-fuzziness,
branched or unbranched above

Short to long, mostly glab-
rescent leaves and leaf-sheaths

A semi-effuse to highly effuse,
strongly branched panicle

2'6-3°6 mm. long, generally
acute to acuminulate spikelets

More- and _ conspicuously-
nerved glumes and lower lemma

Short to medium-long ‘ long
cells’ (100-150 long and 15-234
broad) with feebly to con-
spicuously rippled and cuticula-
rised anticlinal walls

Very thin, perfectly glabrous
culms without nodal-fuzziness,
branched above

Short, narrow, glabrous

leaves and leaf-sheaths

A simple, raceme-like, scan-
tily-branched panicle

2:2-2°5 mm. long, subacute
spikelets

Fewer- and inconspicuously-
nerved glumes andlower lemma

Long and narrow ‘long
cells’ (135-1654 long and 12-
17/ broad) with feebly rippled
and inconspicuously cuticula-
rised anticlinal walls

332 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 63 (3)

The species does not cross with Panicum coloratum ; all concerted
efforts, using a variety of techniques and procedures, to obtain a hybrid
failed.

A slender, highly caespitose, densely tufted, stenophylous, glabrous,
tetraploid (4x=2n=36), perennial with erect bushy growth habit.
Culms 90-110 cm. tall, 5- to 8-noded, terete, up» to 1°6 mm. thick.
Nodes glabrous, i.e. free from nodal-fuzziness. Leaves short, narrow,
acuminately pointed, glabrous, mid-rib highly inconspicuous ; second
leaf 14-20 cm. long and 0-3-0°6 cm. broad; leaf-sheaths glabrous.
Ligule 1:3-1:5 mm. long, fimbriate.

Inflorescence, a scantily-branched, raceme-like panicle, 12-20 cm.
long and 6-9 cm. broad. The secondaries arising from the main
rachis directly bear widely-spaced, paired spikelets. Spikelets sub-acute,
flaccid, 2°2-2°5 mm. long, 2-flowered—the lower staminate and the
upper hermaphrodite. Lower glume short (0°8-1:1 mm. long), orbicular
structure clasping the spikelet, inconspicuously l-nerved. Upper glume,
like the Jower lemma, 5- to 7-nerved, the nerves being inconspicuous.
Lower palea 2-nerved, with feebly dentate margins, hyaline. Herma-—
Phrodite floret almost oval in shape, plano-convex ; Jemma coriaceous,
levigate. Stigmas ‘tyrian rose’ in colour (Ridgway 1912). Anthers
1:0-1°4 mm. long, lemon-yellow.

Some of the salient features of the epidermal pattern are:

Long and narrow ‘ long cells’ with inconspicuously cuticularised
and feebly rippled anticlinal walls ; occurrence of rectangular to saddle-
shaped ‘short cells ’ between the long cells.

The type was isolated from a composite seed lot of Panicum
coloratum obtained originally from Australia. On the basis of
cytotaxonomic investigations by the authors, the specimen has been ©
elevated to specific rank. Type P. P. Jauhar 2, in Herbarium,
Botany Division, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi ;
isotypes to be deposited in the Herbaria of Dehra Dun (P. P. Jauhar 2A),
Calcutta (P. P. Jauhar 2B), and in Kew, England (P. P. Jauhar 2C).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are highly indebted to Rev. Prof. H. Santapau, F.N.1., Director, —
Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, for his valuable suggestions with |
regard to the nomenclature of the taxon and for kindly rendering the |
diagnosis into Latin. We express our cordial thanks to Dr. M. S. |
Swaminathan, Head of the Division of Botany, to Shri H. B. Singh, |
Head of the Division of Plant Introduction, to Dr. N. L. Dhawan,
Geneticist, and to Shri B. D. Patil, formerly Assistant Agrostologist, all
at this Institute, for their critical comments and suggestions. The |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 4 323
senior author is also thankful to the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research for the award of a Senior Research Fellowship of the Council
for the present work.

BOTANY DIVISION, |

INDIAN AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH PREM P. JAUHAR
INSTITUTE, A. B. JOSHI

New De tut 12, yee,

April 6, 1965.

REFERENCES

JAUHAR, P. P. (1963) : Cytotaxonomic RipGway, R. (1912) : Color Standards
investigations in the genus Panicum. and Color Nomenclature. Washington
Ph. D. Thesis. Post-Graduate School, D.C.

I.A.R.I., New Delhi.

16. LAURENTIA LONGIFLORA (LINN.) ENDL. IN
PONDICHERRY

Two years ago Mr. Parichand of Shri Aurobindo Ashram, Pondi-
cherry, showed me a small herbaceous plant with attractive white
flowers. According to him the Mother of the Ashram spoke of it as
signifying ‘ Divine Purity’ and, as it grew in the shade, the plant was
used in pots as an interior decoration in the Ashram ; this stopped
when the gardeners found that the juice of the plant irritates the eyes
and causes a temporary blurring of vision; in spite of this numerous
plants are found growing as weeds in the gardens, and people who
collect the flowers are warned about the harmful juice.

Interested by this information, I analysed the characters of the
plant and found it to be Laurentia longiflora (L.) Endl. (Campanula-
ceae), which was first recorded in India by Fr. Santapau (1955). He
recorded it as growing in wasteland at Castle Rock in North Kanara
and, as an ornamental introduction in a Bombay garden. Of late it has
been seen as a very common weed in many gardens in Bombay and its
neighbourhood (Santapau 1964).

In the last two years the plant has spread to the adjacent gardens of
the Government House and the French Institute, Pondicherry.

The following observations were made on the plants growing in the
gardens of the French Institute.

The flowers are protandrous. I have not observed any biological
agent in the act of effecting cross-pollination in this exotic plant ; never-
theless it is found to produce about 800-1500 seeds per capsule and c.
70% of the seeds are viable. The occurrence of this plant along seepage
canals and the fact that the seeds float in water suggest that they are
transported by the canal water.

324 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

The mature capsules are drooping (see the illustration given by
Santapau 1955) and open by two loculicidal valves at the top between ~
the persistent calyx lobes. The seeds fall in small quantities when the
dry capsules are shaken by the wind, and they germinate readily in moist
and shady soil and fresh seeds collected from mature capsules were
found to do so in moist sawdust.

Since the plant produces flowers and fruits throughout the year, it
has a large seed output and in view of the high percentage of seed viabi-
lity, the reproductive capacity of Laurentia longiflora is remarkably
great. Hence, Fr. Santapau’s assessment that this weed needs watching
is justified.

For a detailed botanical description and illustrations and for an
account of the poisonous qualities of this plant, the following articles
are recommended : i

SANTAPAU, H. (1955): Laurentia longiflora Endl., a new record
for Bombay State. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53 (1): 156-157.

—— (1964): These exotic weeds need watching. Indian
Farming 14 (4) : 20-23, 25.

TuyN, P. (1960): Laurentia. Flora Malesiana, ser. 1, 6 (1):
139-141.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I express my gratitude to Dr. P. Legris and Dr. V. M. Meher-
Homji for their valuable suggestions.

FRENCH INSTITUTE,
PONDICHERRY, G. THANIKAIMONI

May 6, 1965.

17. SOLANUM KHASIANUM VAR. CHATTERJEEANUM SEN
GUPTA: THE POSSIBILITY OF A STEROID HORMONE
INDUSTRY IN INDIA

(With a plate)

The word hormone is derived from the Greek hormaein which means
to excite. Hormones are chemical substances secreted by endocrine
glands in small quantities. Steroid hormones, mostly secreted by the
cortex of the adrenals and the gonads, include cortisone, the wonder
drug for rheumatoid arthritis, and the sex hormones estrone and proges-
terone, androsterone and testosterone.

The first steroid hormone to be isolated was estrone (Doisy et al.
1929) from the urine of pregnant women and, once the new field was

JOURN. BOMBAY Nat. HIstT. Soc.

gawr -— oO

Solanum khasianum var, chatterjeeanum SenGupta
A. portion of the plant with flowers and fruits; B. prickles on stem surface :

type; ii. straight type ;

F. calyx and ovary ;

G. corolla—inner surface ;

H. stamen ;

I. ovary and style

Ls recurved
C. glandular hairs; D. corolla and stamens; E. calyx—outer surface ; |

;
|

—— —

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 5/25)

opened up, a series of research laboratories started working with great
speed. This is evident from the subsequent isolation in quick succes-
sion of natural hormones like androsterone (Butenandt 1931), proges-
terone (Butenandt et al. 1934), testosterone (David ef al. 1935), and
cortisone (Mason ef al. 1936).

The amount of labour and skill involved in these isolations will
appear from a single instance, that 625 kg. of ovaries from 50,000
sows were processed for 20 mg. of pure progesterone. Even so, the
efficacy of steroid hormones particularly cortisone for human ailments
was So great that labour and cost were of no consideration and a total
of 1270 lb. of desoxycholic acid equivalent to 600,000 litres of ox bile
was processed by Merck & Co. in 1949 to produce about 1 kg. of
cortisone at a cost of $200 per gram. However, the supply of desoxy-
cholic acid is limited by the number of cattle slaughtered and a less
expensive and potentially unlimited plant source was essential. Marker
et al. (1940) proved that steroid sapogenins are readily converted to
pregnane compounds with the potential chemical framework for steroid
hormones. Diosgenin and hecogenin, outstanding among steroid sapo-
genins, occur commonly in Dioscoreaceae, which include genus
Dioscorea, source of diosgenin, and in certain species of Agave of family
Amaryllidaceae, source of hecogenin. So in 1950, with authorisation
and funds from the American Congress, a joint programme was
initiated. by three agencies, National Institute of Health (NIH), Section
of Plant Introduction (SPI), and Eastern Utilization Research Branch
(EURB), for increasing the cortisone supply. SPI procured raw plant
materials for chemical analysis and developed promising species as crops,
EURB found out potential cortisone precursors in the plant materials
procured, and NIH synthesised cortisone from suitable plant steroids
isolated by EURB. Asa result 5320 plant samples representing 1068
genera in 219 plant families were studied, and two species of Dioscorea
having the highest yields of diosgenin on record (8°5% and 10%) and an
Agave giving as much as 2°5% hecogenin were discovered. The total
outcome Was surprising, for the cost of cortisone fell from $200 per gram
in 1949 to $3:50 in 1955-58, and progesterone from $80 per gram to
$ 0°48. :
~ While diosgenin and hecogenin were holding the monopoly as start-
ing materials in the manufacture of steroid hormones a serious challenge
came from an alkaloid, solasodine (Sato et al. 1951). Its chemical
structure is very close to diosgenin, from which it differs in having an
imino nitrogen in place of an oxide linkage. The importance of
solasodine has further increased owing to its facile conversion to pro-
gesterone with a remarkably high yield (Sato et al. 1959). In fact, in
USSR diosgenin has been replaced by solasodine in the manufacture cf
steroid hormones,

326 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

Solasodine was first reported in 1905 (Oddo 1929) in the berries of
Solanum sodomeum Linn, as a glycoside, named ‘ solanine-s’ to distin-
guish it from ‘ solanine-t’ of potato sprouts. The name was subsequent-
ly changed to solasonine (Rochelmeyer 1937) and various other names
were given to the same glycoside, namely purpurine from S. aviculare
Forst. f., solancarpidine from S. surratense Burm. f. (=S. xanthocarpum
Schrad. & Wendl.), and soladulcamaridine from S. dulcamara Linn. —
these were later merged as solasonine (Briggs et al. 1937, Boll 1962).

Solasodine is an alkaloid and its isolation is comparatively easy
since it forms a sparingly soluble hydrochloride. It is present in berries
of various species of Solanum which are produced throughout the year
in large quantities. The cost of their collection is less than for
Dioscorea, in which diosgenin occurs in the deeply growing underground
tubers or yams.

At present the commercial production of bulk steroid hormones is
most competitive, the cost of the final product mainly depending on the
starting material. India being rich in native species of Solanaceae with
about 33 species of Solanum, attempts are being made in this Depart-
ment to find out a rich source of solasodine with help and financial
assistance from P. L. 480.

So far we have studied twenty species of Solanum of which one has
proved to possess the highest quantity of solasodine on record (5.4%).
This has been isolated from the mature berries of Solanum khasianum
var. chatterjeeanim SenGupta. The taxonomic features in which it
differs from Solanum khasianum Clarke are: distinctly recurved prickles
on stems, and glandular hairs densely aggregated on stem, leaves, pedicels:
and sepals (SenGupta 1961).

The plant grows wild in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills, Lohit Division
(NEFA), Sikkim, W. Bengal, Orissa, and the Nilgiris. It flowers and
fruits throughout the year, specially during the summer and rainy seasons.
The berries (Plate) are globose, 2:5-3 cm. in diameter, green with faint
variegation turning bright yellow at maturity, usually Soltary or in
clusters of 2 to 3.

’ The solasodine contents in different parts of this plant and also in
plants collected from various regions have been assayed. The results
show that plants collected from the Nilgiris contain the maximum
quantity of solasodine in the berries.

It may be mentioned in this connection that the identity of the plant
as well as its economic potentiality have been first established by this
Survey. Its physiology is now being studied to find out how the yield
of solasodine can be increased,

The Development Council for Drugs and Pharmaceuticals, Govern-
ment of India, has fixed a target for the production of nearly 1200 kg. of
steroid hormones during the Fourth Five-year Plan period for home

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

consumption.

Besides this, there is a high demand all over the world,

the USA alone consuming a single item of corticoid drugs worth 100

million dollars in 1958.

In India we have potentialities for the richest source of solasodine,

with raw materials for the manufacture of steroid hormones,

Let us

exploit it fully and earn the foreign exchange so essential for our

national development,

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
CALCUTTA,
March 15, 1965.

P. C. MAITY

REFERENCES

Bo.t, P. M. (1962): Alkaloidal glyco-
sides from Solanum dulcamarall. Three
new alkaloidal glycosides and a reassess-
ment of soladulcamaridine. Acta Che-
mica Scandinav. 16: 1819-30.

Briccs, L. H. (1937): The identity of

solancarpine with solanine-s. J. Am.
Chem. Soc. 59 : 2467-68.
BUTENANDT, A. (1931): Chemical

investigation of the sex hormones.
Z. Agew. Chem. 44: 905-8.

————., WESTPHAL, U., & HOHLWEG,
W. (1934): The hormone of the corpus
luteum. Z. physiol. Chem. 227: 84-98.

Davip, K., DINGEMANSE, E., FREUD,
J., & LAqugur, E. (1935): Crystalline
male hormone from testes (testosterone)
more active than androsterone prepared
from urine or cholesterol. Z. physiol.
Chem. 233: 281-82.

Doisy, E. A., VELER, C. D., & THAYER,
S. A. (1929): Folliculin from urine of
pregnant women. Am. J. Physiol. 90:
329-30.

MarKER, R. E., TSUKAMOTO, T., &

TURNER, D. L. (1940): Sterols C. dios-
genin. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 62: 2525-32.

Mason, H. L., Myers, C. S., &
KENDALL, E. C. (1936): The chemist1y of
crystalline substances isolated from the
suprarenal gland. J. Biol. Chem. 114:
613-30.

Oppo, G. (1929):
62B : 267-71.

ROCHELMEYER, H. (1937): Sterol alka-
loids. Arch. Pharm. 275: 336-42.

SATO, Y., MILLER, H. K., & MoseETTIG,
E. (1951) : Degradation of solasodine.
J. Am. Chem. Soc. 73: 5009.

————— IKEKAWA, N., & MOSETTIG,
E. (1959) : Improvement in the prepara-
tion of 3 B-acetoxy-S—pregn—16 en—
20 one and 3 B-actoxypregna-5, 16-dien
—20 one from the steroidal alkaloids,
tomatidine and solasodine. J. Org.
Chem. 24: 893-94.

SENGupTA, G. (1961): A taxonomic
note on Solanum khasianum Clarke and
description of a new variety under it.
Bull, bot. Surv. India3; 411-15.

Solanine. Ber.

18. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF PLANTAGO PSYLLIUM
LINN. IN GUJARAT

(With four text-figures)

Plantago psyllium Linn. Sp. Pl. 167, 1753; Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 707,
1885 (excl. syn.); Kirtikar & Basu, Ind. Med. Pl. (ed. 2) 3: 2042,

1933.

Annual herb, erect, 30-45 cm. tall with opposite branches ; stems

and branches somewhat tumid at lower nodes, terete, faintly striate,
olive green, finely glandular pubescent in older parts, densely so in
younger. Leaves 2'5-6:5 cm. long, opposite or subopposite, apparently

328 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

appearing whorled, narrowly linear, glabrous except a few hairs on
margins near base, subacute or obtuse at apex, sheathing at base; sheath

Piped | RAE RS Fig. 4
Plantago psyllium Linn.

Fig. 1. Twig (x 0.75); Fig. 2. Flower x 7.5; Fig. 3. Fruit
x 7.5; Fig. 4. Seed 7.5.

of opposite leaves sometimes united. Spikes 6-10 mm. long, ovoid or
oblong, compact, solitary, axillary, on 2°5-5 cm. long, glandular hairy
peduncle. Flowers rosy pink. Bract 5-10 mm. long, glandular hairy.
Sepals 4, 2°5-3 x +1mm., ovate, acute or subacute, pubescent on
outer side, with hyaline, ciliate margins. Petals 4, united, glabrous ;
tube 3°5-4 x 1:5-2 mm., somewhat constricted beneath lobes;
lobes -+ 1 mm. long, ovate, acute. Stamens 4, exserted; filaments
slender, glabrous ; anthers yellow when fresh, pale brown on drying.
Ovary 2 X 1:5 mm., glabrous; style 2°5-3 mm., slender, hairy, in fruit
pale brown. Fruit 3x 2mm., glabrous, circumsciss a little below
the middle. Seed 3 x 1:3 mm., yellowish brown, glabrous, boat-
shaped.

Collected on 1.2.1965 from cultivated fields of Cuminum cyminum L.,
about three miles from Vallabh Vidyanagar, where it is common in some |
fields (Shah 11380, five sheets).

MISCELLANEOUS. NOTES 625

From the literature available to the authors, it appears that the
plant has not been recorded previously from oe and Maharashtra
States. It is reported here for the first time.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are deeply thankful to-Shri M. B. Raizada, Principal,
D.A.Y. College, Dehra Dun, for confirming the identity of this plant.

UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

S. V. VIDYAPEETH, J. G. CHOHAN, ™. sc.
VALLABH VIDYANAGAR, G. L. SHAH, M.Sc., Ph.D.
DIST. KAIRA, GUJARAT STATE,

March 30, 1965S.

19. JATROPHA TANJORENSIS ELUIS ET SAROJA: A NEW
RECORD FOR EASTERN INDIA

This species was recentiy described from south India by Ellis &
Saroja (1962) in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc, 58(3) : 834-836. As it is sofar >
not recorded from any other part of the country, its occurrence in W.
Bengal is of interest. The author collected this plant at Panpur,
Howrah District, on 4 May 1964; some full grown plants, 1-5-3 m.
high, ina fence and some smaller ones scattered on open places near by.
Since the plant is used for fencing one can expect that in the near future —
this may be spread widely by human agency.

J. tanjorensis is closely allied to J. glandulifera Roxb., but can be
easily distinguisned in the field by its leaves lobed above the middle,
and its finely serrated margins, with each serrature gland-tipped. The
wide range of its flowering season is clearly evident from’ the date of
collection of the type (20 Jan. 1961) and the present collection.

Specimens examined Bennet 704. CAL.

Thanks are due. to Dr. S. K. Mukerjee, Keeper, Central National
Herbarium, for encouragement and to Mr. J. L Ellis, Botanist, Botanical
Survey of India, Coimbatore, for confirming the identity of the speci-
men with the type.

CENTRAL NATIONAL HERBARIUM,

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, Ss. 8S. R. BENNET
BOTANIC GARDEN P. O.,
HOWRAH,

March 16, 1965,

330. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

20. NOTES ON THE VEGETATION OF WADI AS-SAHBA’,
EASTERN ARABIA

(With a diagram and two plates)

On 10-11 February 1965 the writer made several traverses through the
Harad (Haradh)-Central Jafurah area of eastern Saudi Arabia to
gather field data for a vegetation map of the Eastern Province. Part of
the route lay in Wadi as-Sahba’, and the following qualitative notes on
the natural vegetation of the wadi may be of some interest, now that the
area has been selected as the site of a major agricultural development
project.

The writer and a companion. entered the wadi near the new project
site, camped in the wadi bed to the south-east, and drove down the
channel the next day to.a little beyond the point where it is blocked by
dunes of the Jafurah, near longitude 49° 30’ east. At about 49° 02:3’
east, or 8 km. south-east of the project site, a vegetation transect of the
wadi was made (see diagram below) with exaggerated vertical scale.
The vegetation data gathered here are fairly representative of most of the
wadi’s length. At this point the wadi bottom, or say/ bed, runs near the
southern bank. At other points it is nearer the centre or the northern
bank. The wadi cross-section may, for purposes of description, be
divided into four zones :

- Harad gravel plain

. Wadi walls

. Wadi interior slopes
. Wadi bottom

‘Kilometres

A. The Harad gravel plain. This is an extensive, nearly level plain
with a surface of water-deposited pebbles and cobbles derived from the
Pleistocene flow of the Sahba’ channel. The vegetation of this plain is
very Sparse ; in the Harad area it consists of occasional stunted shrubs
of Rhanterium epapposum Oliv. (Arabic : ‘arfaj) with clumps of Rhazya
stricta Decne. (Arabic: harmal). About 32 km. north-east of Harad the
Rhanterium-Rhazya gives way toa well-defined association of co-dominant
Rhanterium and Ephedra alata Decne. (Arabic: ‘alanda). Diplotaxis
harra (Forssk.) Boiss, (Arabic; khafsh), Astragalus dactylocarpus

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLaTE I

Py i ‘ POU OL OGD PA
de gee ee ee ee
. Se Ne a ae cee ES I SM BeOS ‘Sj =: ye
SA eT a a aa ; eX J %
— a : * yo :
My 3 &
SS ae pe eS

1. Ephedra alata Decne. (0:75 m.) in the Rhantertwm-Ephedra association

of the northern Harad gravel plain (24° 28’ N.; 49° 23’ E.). Ephedra, com-

mercially exploited in some countries as a source of the drug ephedrine,

occurs here with Rhantertwm on small hummocks on the light, gritty soil
characteristic of this community.

2. Wadi as-Sahba’ bottom (24° 02-5’ N.; 49° 02-2’ E.), with hummocks
of the dominant shrub Haloxylon salicornicum in winter resting stage. In
the background, the nearly barren interior slopes and the northern wall.

(Photos : James P. Mandaville, Jr.)

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PraTeE II

1. Acacia flava (2-5m.), characteristic of the Haloxylon bottom community
in Wadi as-Sahba’ (23° 57’ N. ; 49° 14’ E.)

2. Wadi as-Sahba’ bottom inside the western edge of the Jafurah dunes
(23° 50’ N.; 49° 30’ E.). The shrublets on the wadi floor are Haloxylon
and co-dominant Azabasis setifera.

(Photos: James P. Mandaville, Jr.)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 331

Boiss. and Daemia cordata R. Br. (Arabic: ghalqah) were noted in sayl
channels cutting across the plain from the Ghawar hills at a point
16 km. north-east of Harad. The eastern portion of the plain along the
edge of the Jafirah dunes immediately north of Wadi as-Sahba’ supports
very sparse and stunted shrublets of Haloxylon salicornicum (Moq.) Bge.
(Arabic: rimth) rather than Rhanterium. A few shallow basins in this
area had a fairly dense cover of Monsonia nivea (Decne.) J. Gay (Arabic :
garnuwah). Travelling north along the edge of the Jafirah, it was noted
that scattered Rhanterium again became evident north of latitude 24° 10’
north, and at 24°24’ north the denser Rhanterium-Ephedra association
of the northern Harad gravel plain was entered (Plate I, 1). The plain
south of Wadi as-Sahba’ was not studied,

B. The wadi walls. The wadi walls are quite steep, in some places
having the aspect of small bluffs. Run off from the gravel plain attains
enough velocity to cut deep channels to the valley floor. Vegetation on
the walls is generally confined to these water channels and consists of
well-developed Rhanterium, Anvillea garcini (Burm.) DC, (Arabic : nuqd),
and tussocks of the grass Lasiurus hirsutus (Forssk.) Boiss. (Arabic:
da‘ah).

C. The wadi interior slopes. ‘The interior slopes, like the walls, are
generally barren except where cut. by water channels. The rate of run-
off in this zone is less, however, and the vegetation attains a greater
development. This is particularly true of the northern slope, where sand
has blown over the wall to form drifts covered and stabilized by
Lasiurus and Panicum turgidum Forssk. (Arabic: thumam), with fre-
quent shrubs of Lycium barbarum L. (Arabic : ‘awsaj) and Ochradenus
baccatus Del. (Arabic : qurdi).

D. The wadi bottom. This zone is quite level and of variable
width, averaging perhaps 350 metres. Haloxylon salicornicum is the
obvious dominant, occurring in relatively closely spaced hummocks that
mark the limits of the zone (Plate I, 2). The other conspicuous member
of the community is a small tree, Acacia flava Schweinf. (Arabic:
salam), that overtops the Haloxylon in a discontinuous line along the
lowest part of the channel (Plate II, 1). Infrequent examples of Lycium
and Rhanterium were also seen 12 km. south-east of the Jabrin track
crossing.

Probably the most abundant annual of the bottom community is
Neurada procumbens L. (Arabic: sa‘dan), which in some favourable
locations forms mats of almost continuous cover. Other annuals noted
in the silty bottom among the Haloxylon were: Arnebia decumbens Coss.
et Kral. (Arabic: kahal), Plantago ciliata Desf. (Arabic: yanam),
Senecio coronopifolius Desf. (Arabic: kura‘ al-ghurab), Sclerocephalus
arabicus Boiss., Emex spinosa Camped. (Arabic : hambizan), Koelpinia

332 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

linearis Pall. (Arabic: lihyat ash-shaybah), Trigonella stellata Forssk.
(Arabic : nafal), Astragalus sp. cf. tribuloides Del. (Arabic: qaf‘a’), and
Diplotaxis harra. Anastatica hierochuntica L. (Arabic: kaftah) was
abundant. |

Nearer the Jaftirah dunes there is a gradual increase in drift sand
cover on the wadi floor. Acacia becomes infrequent, and the Haloxylon
shrubs are more widely spaced. As the first isolated dunes appear,
Anabasis setifera Mog. (Arabic: sha‘ran) becomes co-dominant with
Haloxyion in the flats (Plate IT, 2).

Haloxylon salicornicum in Eastern Arabia is usually characteristic of
areas with a relatively high water table and poorer drainage. The Wadi
as-Sahba’ bottom is certainly somewhat more saline than the walls or
the plain above, but the presence of such a variety of annuals and the
absence of definite salt markers such as Seidlitzia rosmarinus (Ehrnb.)
Solms.-Laub. (Arabic: shinan) and Suaeda vermiculata Forssk. (Arabic:
sawwad) indicate that this bottom salinity is moderate. The presence
of Anabasis further down the wadi may indicate increasingly saline con-
ditions in the lower reaches of the channel.

A large scale Bedouin settlement programme in Wadi as-Sahba’
would probably result in the eradication of the Acacia now found
in the wadi bed as well as most of the Haloxylon, a highly valued
fuel shrub in any area of such sparse vegetation. Except where portions
of the channel are cleared for cultivation, it might be worthwhile to
maintain the Haloxylon cover to help control seasonal run-off.

Another sampling of the wadi’s flora in late spring would certainly
add to the list of annual plants; annual grasses were notably absent in
early February. Some quantitative vegetation data would be useful, and
any time spent examining the potentially destructive rodent fauna of the
wadi would not be wasted. Jerboas (Jaculus sp.) and gerbilles (Gerbillus
sp.) were observed in the Ha/oxy/on community at night ; and sand rats of
the genus Meriones, if present or introduced, might prove to be particu-
larly troublesome as crop destroyers.

ARMACO, Box 1912,
DHAHRAN,

SAUDI ARABIA, J. MANDAVILLE
March 1, 1965.

21. A NOTE ON THE IDENTIFICATION OF SOME
UNRECORDED DESERT PLANTS FROM KUTCH

While studying the plants of the Indian Desert at the Blatter Her-
barium, St. Xavier’s College, Bombay, the author came across certain
interesting but little known plants from the district of Kutch. These
plants were either wrongly assigned or were found in the dubia covers,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 333

None of them has been reported earlier from Kutch (Blatter 1908 ;
Cooke 1901-1908 ; Hooker 1872-1879 ; Thakar 1926 ; Jain & Deshpande
1960 ; Jain & Kanodia 1960 ; Kapadia 1954; Palin 1880; and Saxton
& Sedgwick 1918) and most of them not even from the adjacent regions
of Saurashtra (Santapau 1953, 1962; Santapau & Raizada 1954,
1955). It was, therefore, considered desirable to place on record the
occurrence of these species in the Kutch region, which has great
phytogeographical importance as it is the meeting ground of the arid
elements of the African and Arabian flora with those of the Indian
flora. The geographical distribution of these species is interesting.
All the specimens are deposited in the Blatter Herbarium.

1. Cleome brachycarpa Vahl ex DC. Prodr. 1 : 240 ; 1824.

Irani 5225, 5226, and 5227: ‘Jalender-Bet, 8-9-60. Erect, 14 ft.
high ; much branched from the base ; forming a clump; about 1 ft. in
diameter ; in flower (yellow) and fruit; occasional in open; locally
abundant along road sides.’

This species has been reported only from NW. Rajasthan in India;
it is a common species in West Pakistan, Arabia, Abyssinia, and
N. Africa.

2. Corallocarpus conocarpus (Dalz. ex Dalz. & Gibs.) C. B. Clarke
in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 628 ; 1879.

Trani 5184, and 5185: ‘ Rest House, Juiju-Wada, 7-9-60. Climbing
on Capparis aphylla in the open; leaves fleshy ; fruits green when
young, red with age ; leaves eaten as caer ; local name: ‘“ Kadavi-
Nai’”’.’

A aa rare species, recently reported (Bhandari 1963) as a new re-
cord for NW. Rajasthan. Earlier this species was collected by Dal-
zell from Gujarat (no definite locality given) ; by Stocks, probably from
Sind, and by Talbot from ‘ Dumbal’.

3. Dactyliandra welwitchii Hook f. in Fl. Trop. Afr. 2 : 557, 1871;
Bhandari et Singh in Kew Bull. 19 : 133. 1964.

Irani 5198: ‘Kutch, 8-9-60, Climber, in flower (Whitish-green)
and fruit; seeds 6-8; the auriculate stipules are very cdnspicuous ;
vernacular name: Anj-phutamni’. Irani 5244: ‘ Jalender-Bet, 9-9-60
Climber, in fruit; bracts conspicuous; common; vernacular name
Ankh- phutamani.’

Recently reporied as a new genus ee for India (Bhandari &
Singh 1964), this species was known earlier only from Angola and south-
west Africa (Meeuse 1962).

Irani’s specimens were lying in the dubia cover of @xeunbiiaecae at
Blatter Herbarium until they were assigned by the author.

334. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

4. Hibiscus punctatus Dalz. ex Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. FI. 20. 1861.

Trani 5253: ‘Kutch, Jalender-Bet, 12-9-60. An erect undershrub
1-2 ft. high ; in flower ; occasional ; identified as one of the Malvaceae.’

This species has so far been reported from Saurashtra (Jamnagar and
Okhamandal) and NW. Rajasthan (Bhandari 1963).

5. Merua arenaria var. glabra Hook. f. & Thom. in FI. Brit. Ind. 1:
171. 1872.

Trani 5245 and 5246: ‘ Jalender-Bet, Kutch, 9-9-60. Is it a liana ?
The basal portion of the stem is very thick, twines for about 6 ft. and
gives out sarmentose drooping branches ; in bud ; very common. It was
also very common towards the West but in leaf only; vernacular name:
Batakna.’

Identified as Cadaba indica. 7

Young plants of this species from NW. Rajasthan have posed pro-
blems to the author as to their identification but the difficulty was solved
later when similar young branches were observed growing from the base
of some old plants in the same region. This plant has recently been
reported from Saurashtra (Santapau 1962).

6. Tephrosia uniflora subsp. uniflora Gillett in Kew Bull. 1958:
114.1958.

Trani 5216 and 5217: ‘Kutch, Jalender-Bet, 8-9-60. Erect 1-24 in. in
fruit, on dry sloping ground, locally abundant but not common.’

Subsp. uniflora is a common plant in the drier parts of tropical
Africa. It is separated from the subspecies petrosa, which is very com-
mon throughout NW. Rajasthan and Ajmer, by its more or less spread-
ing indumentum, leaflets often up to 7 (sometimes 9), seeds 9-14, and
pods 5-6 cm. long. The subspecies petrosa on the other hand has the
indumentum of pods, pedicels, and calyx closely appressed, the leaflets
very rarely more than 5, seeds 5-8 (rarely 9), and pods 3-5 cm. long.

This is the first record of this subspecies from India.

7. Tephrosia uniflora subsp. petrosa (Blatt. & Hall.) Gillett et Ali in
Kew Bull. 1958: 114. 1958.

Trani 5215: ‘ Kutch, Jalender-Bet, 8-9-60. In fruit; on dry sloping
grounds ; locally abundant but not common.’ Irani 5373 (12-9-60) and
5338 (11-9-60) ‘Vernacular name: Jhill; Jalender-Bet, Kutch. ’
SAURASHTRA : Santapau 14597 : ‘T. pauciflora, Rajkot, Praduma Park,
20-8-52 ; flowers purple, on slopes forming cushions’. Bole 612 : ‘Plants
poor but most probably this is not 7. senticosa; Jila Garden, Rajkot;
20-8-52, herb ; flowers red, frequent.’

This subspecies has been reported by Gillett (loc. cit.) from Hedjaz,
Aden, W. Pakistan (Sind and NW. Frontier Province), and in India it
has up till now been found only in NW. Rajasthan and Ajmer,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES — 335

‘ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is indebted to Prof. P. V. Bole, St. Xavier’s College,
Bombay, for providing facilities to work at Blatter Herbarium and to
Fr. H. Santapau for offering valuable comments.

BOTANY DEPARTMENT,
UNIVERSITY OF JODHPUR,
JODHPUR, RAJASTHAN,
December 5, 1964.

M. M. BHANDARI

REFERENCES :

BHANDARI, M. M. (1963): Nos@on
Indian Desert Plants. 2: New record
for N.W. Indian Desert. Proc. Rajasthan
Acad. Sci. 10 : 44.

, & SincH, D. (1964) :

Dactyliandra Hook. f., a new genus in

Indian Flora from Rajasthan Desert. Kew
Bull. 19 ; 133-138.

BuaTTER, E. (1908-1909): On the flora

of Kutch. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

18 : 756-777 ; 19 : 157-176. ;

Cooke, T. (1901-1908) : The flora of
the Presidency of Bombay. London.

Hooker, J. D., et al. (1872-1879) : The
Flora of British India. Vols. 1 and 2.
London.

JAIN, S. K., & DESHPANDE, U. R.
(1960): Further contribution to the
flora of Kutch in Gujrat State. Bull.
bot. Surv. India 2 : -87-292.

——-——, & KANOopIA, K. C. (1960) :
Additions to the flora of Kutch. Curr.
Sci. 29 : 361.

KAPADIA, G. A. (1954): Statistical
synopsis of the flora of Kutch. J. Gujrat
Res. Soc. 16: 90-107.

MeeEusE, M. (1962) : Cucurbitaceae of
S. Africa, Bothalia 8: 10.

PALIN, C.T. (1880) : A list of plants of
Kutch. Bombay Gazetteer 5.

SANTAPAU, H. (1953): Plants of
Saurashtra ;: A preliminary list. Rajkot.

————~— (1962) : Flora of Saurash-
tra. Pt. 1. Rajkot.

———_——,, & RAIZADA, M.B. (1954) :
Contribution to the flora of Gir Forest in
Saurashtra. Jndian For. 80: 379-389,

ee (1955): Contribution to
the Flora of the Gir Forest in Saurash-
tra. Indian For. Rec. 4: 105-170.

SAXTON, W.T., & SEDGWICK, L. J.
(1918) : Plants of Northern Gujrat. Rec.
bot. Surv. India ©: 207-323. i-xiii.

THAKAR, J.I. (1926): Plants of Cutch
and their utility. Bombay (in Gujarati).

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL
SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1964-65

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President
Mrs. Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit, Governor of Maharashtra

_Vice-Presidents

Major-General Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, I.M.s. (Retd.)
Dr. Salim Ali, D.Sc., F.N.I.
Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J.

Hon. Secretary
Mr. Zafar Futehally

Hon, Treasurer

Mr. J. D. Kapadia, I.c.s. (Retd.)

Member
Secretary, Ministry of Education, Govt. of India

Elected Membeérs

Mr. Humayun Abdulali
Mr. G. V. Bedekar, I.c.s. (Retd.)
Prof. P. V. Bole

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, M.Sc., Ph.D.

Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati, M.D. (from January 1965)
Mr. D. J. Panday

Dr. T. Ramachandra Rao, D.Sc., F.N.I.

Mr. G. S. Ranganathan (up to December 1964)
Mr. D. E. Reuben, I.c.s. (Retd.)

¥. S. Shivrajkumar of Jasdan

HISTORY

\ ex officio

ES a ae

A.G.M. 1964-65—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 337

ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Mr. H. G. Acharya pk <i gi _.. Ahmedabad
Mr. F. C. Badhwar, 0.B.E. on .. New Delhi
Sir Chintaman Deshmukh. kt., C.LE., I.C.S. (Retd. ae NeW Delt
Rev. Fr. Dr. J. B. Freeman, M. as Et, Po.D., Deb: ... Mysore
Mr. E, P. Gee, M.A.,.C.M.Z.S. .. A .. Shillong
M. K. Himmatsinhji of Kutch art .. Bhuj
Dr. Baini Prashad, D.Sc. F.N.I. .. .. Dehra Dun
Dr. M. L. Roonwal, M.sc., Ph.D. & Sc.D. (Cantab.),

BAN, Beeb Zi Sel 4 -. + Galeuita
Mr. P. D. Stracey, I.F.S. ; .. Kohima
Lt.-Gen. Sir H. Williams, C.B., C.B.E.,-M.L.C.E., M.LE. .. New Delhi

HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1964

At the last Annual General Meeting of the Society held on 28th
April 1964 we presented a supplementary report about the activities of
the Society up to April 1964, and the present report covers the eight
months thereafter up to 31st December 1964.

THE SOCIETY’ S JOURNAL

Two numbers of the Journal, Vol. 61, No. 1 and No. 2, were pub-
lished during the period under report. The 481 pages include 7 papers
on botany, 5 on insects, 4 on birds, 2 each on reptiles, fishes, and
Crustacea and 1 each on wild life, mammals, and molluscs. The 45
Miscellaneous Notes covered many subjects and, together with the
papers, included descriptions of several new species and races of various
animals and plants. It is unfortunate that the publication of the
Journal numbers is often delayed considerably, but the editors are
making every effort to hasten publication.

GENERAL

BNHS/WHO Bird Migration Study Project. Two camps were held
during the period under report. At the camp held at Hingolgadh,
Saurashtra, 335 birds were ringed between 18th and 28th September
1964, and blood samples collected. The second camp at Manjhaul,
Bihar, ringed 2677 birds of 27 species between 18th November 1964 and
20th January 1965. The blood samples collected at this and the earlier
camp were sent to the Kievskae Shosse Institute of Poliomyelitis and
Virus Encephalitis, Moscow, USSR, for virological investigation. We

338 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

have since been informed by Prof. G. I. Netsky of the Institute that
some of the samples have yielded virus anti-bodies. We received during
the year reports of recoveries in Russia of 14 birds ringed by us at the
various camps. The work is to be continued.

Additions to the Collections. During the year 352 additions were
made to our registered collections as under :

Mammals nate hS
Birds eT)
Reptiles eat a20
Amphibians val HRZO:

Interesting additions among these are:

Mammal

Pteropus faunulus

Birds

Egretta sacra

Spilornis elgini
Gallinula chloropus orientalis
Sterna dougallii
Macropygia rufipennis
Psittacula longicauda
Centropus andamanensis
Otus balli

Ninox scutulata obscura
Collocalia inexpectata
Dendrocitta bayleyi
Coracina striata
Hypsipetes nicobariensis
Pachycephala cinerea
Nectarinia jugularis
Pericrocotus divaricatu

Reptiles

Gekko smithi
Calotes andamanensis.

Research Studies. The ecology and status of the butterfly Nacaduba
pactolus continentalis Frith., which is rare in the northern ranges of the
Western Ghats, are being studied. The work is in progress.

Two projects under the scheme ‘ The Role of Birds in our National

Economy’, sponsored by the Council of Scientific and Industrial

A.G.M. 1964-65--PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 339

Research, are under study. The investigation on ornithophily is
nearing completion and the study of migration is in progress. |

Wild Life Preservation. (a) A Memorandum was submitted to the
Planning Commission for strengthening the Indian Board for Wild Life
and making it an effective body for the preservation of the country’s
natural wealth.

(b) A proposal was sent, to the Bihar Government for converting
the Kabar Tal in Monghyr District, Bihar, into a bird sanctuary for the
protection of migrant birds visiting the area in winter.

(c) The Society’s proposal for a survey of the Wild Buffalo in
Bastar was accepted by the Government of Madhya Pradesh, and it has
been decided to depute the Curator to visit the area and work in
association with Dr. George Schaller, an American ecologist, who
is already in India.

PUBLICATIONS

The 7th edition of Dr. Salim Ali’s THE BOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS was
published during the year. The Society also reprinted a set of 12
picture postcards of Indian birds. Coloured plates for the Hindi
edition of THE BOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS were supplied to the Central
Hindi Directorate who are publishing this book. Work on the ten-
volume HANDBOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS by Dr. Salim Ali is in progress.
There was a considerable amount of difficulty in clearing through the
Customs the paintings for the plates which are being received from
abroad and which are being financed entirely by the co-author of
the book Dr. Dillon Ripley. We are considering the publication
of a revised and condensed version of our popular book on angling,
CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER SPORTING FISH IN INDIA AND
BURMA by A. St. J. Macdonald.

LIBRARY é

During the year 124 books and bound journals were added to
the library, of which 19 books were purchased, 20 received for
review, and 11 presented. Our thanks are due to the donors. —

NATURE EDUCATION SCHEME

The Nature Education Scheme financed by the Government of
Maharashtra is now in its 17th year. Tours of the Natural History
Section of the Prince of Wales Museum and special talks on
natural history subjects with the aid of exhibits and specimens,
films, and living animals were continued. The activities under the

340 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

scheme have now been extended to Poona and the revised General
Science Syllabus prepared by the Society’s Nature Education Sub-
Committee giving importance to the study of the natural environment
has been adopted by many schools in Bombay and Poona.

TALKS AND FILM SHOWS

Five meetings were held at the Society’s rooms during the period
under report at which Prof. P. V. Bole spoke on ‘The Valley of
Flowers’, Dr. T. Ramachandra Rao on ‘ The Natural History of Arbo-
Viruses ’, Dr. C. V. Kulkarni on ‘ Fisheries Development in Maharash-
tra State’, Mr. Zafar Futehally on ‘Some Attempts at Preserving
Vanishing Bird Species’, and Mr. Andrew J. Berger on ‘ Kirkland’s
Warbler’. A meeting was also held in association with other organi-
zations to felicitate Fr. H. Santapau, s.J., on the award to him of the
Birbal Sahni Medal for 1963.

MEMBERSHIP

The total membership on our books at the end of 1964 was 1315,
including 241 life and 4 honorary members. Subscriptions were
received from 764 members, including 63 Forest Department nominees,
and we hope to receive subscriptions from most of the remaining
members except for a few who cannot be traced. During 1964, 78
ordinary members and 3 life members were enrolled as against 48
members who either resigned or died. We would like to enlist your
help in enrolling more members. As you know, the annual subscription
has remained unchanged since 1949 and, unless there is a substantial
increase in membership, we will be unable to cover our deficit in the
future.

REVENUE ACCOUNT

During the year the income of the Society, excluding the special grant
received from the Government of Maharashtra for the maintenance of the
Reference Collections and the Grant-in-aid from the Council of
Scientific and Industrial Research for the Scheme on ‘ The Role of
Birds in Our National Economy’, was Rs. 57,472.42, as against
Rs. 69,058.70 in the previous year. The working of the Society during
1964 showed a deficit of Rs. 10,391.20 as against Rs. 8,324.25 in 1963.
The large deficit in 1964 was due mainly to the fact that our popular
publications were out of print during the year.

A.G.M. 1964-65—-PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 341

STAFF

The Committee wishes to record its appreciation of the willing
co-operation of the entire staff in the activities of the Society.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Committee’s thanks are due to Mr. J. L. Bernard who continues
to look after the Society’s interests in the United Kingdom.

SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS BY THE HONORARY
SECRETARY FOR THE PERIOD JANUARY TO
APRIL 1965

GENERAL

New Building. We are glad to report that the new premises of the
Society, ‘ Hornbill House’, were formally opened on 13th March 1965
by the Honourable Minister for Education to the Government of India,
Shri M. C. Chagla. A report on the function is being published in the
Society’s Journal [Vol. 62: 185 ff.].

Research Studies, Funds have been provided from the Sir Dorabji
Tata Trust grant for field work to a knowledgeable member for an
ecological survey of the Hazaribagh National Park in Bihar.

Wild Life Preservation. Asa result of the Memorandum submitted
by the Society, the Planning Commission called a meeting for ‘ Wild
Life Preservation’ at Delhi on 23rd April 1965. It is hoped that the
decisions taken at the meeting will be implemented in course of time.

The Curator, Mr. J. C. Daniel, in association with Dr. George
Schaller, made a preliminary survey of the Wild Buffalo areas in Bastar
in April 1965. The report is under preparation.

PUBLICATIONS

The revised second edition of Prater’s THE BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS

was published in April 1965.
LIBRARY

During the period under review, 19 books and bound volumes of
journals were added to the library, of which 2 were purchased and 5
received for review.

MEMBERSHIP

In addition to the subscription received from 764 members till the
end of 1964, an additional 46 members paid their subscription during
this period. Efforts are ponin eas to price the remaining members
to pay their subscription.

342

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 62 (2)

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351

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

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ALAIOOS AYOLSIH TWYNOLVN AVENO

A.G.M. 1964-65--PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 353

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY HELD AT
HORNBILL HOUSE, APOLLO STREET, BOMBAY 1, ON
FRIDAY, 30TH JULY 1965, AT 6 P.M., WITH DR. SALIM ALI,
D.Ssc., F.N.I., IN THE CHAIR

The Chairman referred to the loss the Society has sustained during
the year by the deaths of:
Hamid A. Ali (Life member ; joined 27-9-1912)
H.H. The Maharaja of Bhavnagar (Life member; joined 7-1-1930)
Framroze A. Daver (Joined 28-3-1923)
H. Dayal (Joined 3-1-1950)
Maj.-Gen. M. Hayaud-Din (Life member; joined 14-2-1945)
H.H. The Maharaia Yeshwantrao Holkar (Life member ; joined
12-5-1930)
‘C.S. Kooi (Joined 24-2-1951)
Dato Loke Wan Tho (Life member ; joined 26-10-1941)
K. P. Reynolds (Joined 10-6-1932)
H.H, The Maharaja of Sangli (Life member ; joined 8-4-1911)
Lt.-Col. R. B. Seymour-Sewell (Life member ; joined -8-10-1910)
who were all of much assistance in furthering the interests of the Society.
Everyone present stood in silence for two minutes as a mark of respect.
1. The Honorary Secretary’s reports for the year ending 31st-Decem-
ber 1964 and for the period January to April 1965 having been pre-
viously circulated to members were taken as read and were adopted.
2. The Balance Sheet and Statement of Accounts presented by the
Honorary Treasurer were approved.
3. The following were chosen as members of the Executive and
Advisory Committee for the year 1965-66.

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President
Dr. P. V. Cherian, Governor of Maharashtra

Vice-Presidents
Major-General Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, I.M.s. (Retd.)
Dr. Salim Ali, D.Sc., F.N.I.
Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J.
Hon, Secretary -
Mr. Zafar Futehally
of Hon. Treasurer
Mr. J. D. ee 1C.S. (Retd.)
Sk ae Member
Secretary, Ministry of Education, Govt. of India
a

ex officio

354. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)
Elected Members

Mr. Humayun Abdulali

Mr. G. V. Bedekar, 1.c.s. (Retd.)
Prof. P. V. Bole

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, M.Sc., Ph.p.

Mr. S. Majeedullah, 1.P.s.

Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati, M.D.

Mr. D. J. Panday

Dr. T. Ramachandra Rao, D.Sc., F.N.I.
Mr. D. E. Reuben, I.c.s. (Retd.)

ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Mr. H. G. Acharya i ‘ .. Ahmedabad
Mrs. Jamal Ara ae ie .. Ranchi
Mr. F. C. Badhwar, O.B.E. .. .. New Delhi _
Sir Chintaman Deshmukh, Kt., C.1.E., I.c.s. (Retd.).. New Delhi
Mr. E. P.-Gee, -M.A., ‘C.M.Z:S- ae .. Shillong
Mr. M. Krishnan a? .. Madras
Dr. N. K. Panikkar, M.A., D.SC., F.N.I. .. .. New Delhi
Dr. Baini Prashad, D.Sc., F.N.I. ns .. Dehra Dun
Mr. P. D. Stracey, I.F.S. er 7 .. New Delhi
Lt.-Gen. Sir H. Williams, C.B., C.B.E., M.I.C.E.,

M.LE. a * .. New Delhi

4. The following recommendations made in the Ist and 2nd reports
of the Sub-Committee appointed on the 7th May 1964 to study the
Rules and Regulations of the Society and to prepare a list of the rules
requiring amendment were considered :

1st Report, dated the 16th June 1964

Rule 5
For existing Rule 5, substitute :

‘ Life members are those members who have either on election or at
some later date contributed to the funds of the Society in one sum a
Contribution of Rs. 500 or such other sum as may be fixed by the Com-
mittee from time to time. Provided that, such members shall be entitled
to adjusti against the Contribution the annual subscription, if any, paid
by them for the current year.

‘In the case of an Ordinary Member who has paid the annual subs-
cription for not less than 20 years, the Contribution for Life Member-
ship shall be Rs. 150. Provided that, an Ordinary Member of twenty

A.G.M. 1964-65—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 355

years’ standing shall be entitled to adjust against the Contribution the
annual subscription, if any, paid by him for the current year.’

Rule 6
In Rule 6,
(a) for ‘co-operative’ (occurring twice) substitute ‘ corporate’.
(b) for ‘22° substitute ‘25’.
(c) for ‘350° substitute ‘500’.
Rule 10
In Rule 10, omit the second sentence. °

Rule 16
In Rule 16, omit the words ‘ residing abroad ’.

Rule 22 -
Omit Rule 22.

Rule 27 3
In Rule 27, for the words ‘and place’ substitute ‘at the Society’s

office ’.
Rule 28

At the commencement of Rule 28, insert the words :

‘ Subject to the provisions of The Societies Registration Act of 1860
and Rule 18 above,’.

Rule 34

In Rule 34, omit the last sentence.
Rule 39

Omit Rule 39.
Rule 55

For existing rule 55, substitute :

‘The Honorary Treasurer or his deputy shall demand and receive
for the use of the Society all monies due or payable to the Society,
and shall keep full and particular accounts of all sums so received. He
shall also from time to time invest the funds of the Society as may be
determined by the Committee. An account in the name of the Society
shall be opened and all monies shall be deposited with such Bankers
as may be appointed by the Committee. No payment shall be made by
the Honorary Treasurer without the authorisation in writing of the
Honorary Secretary or, in his absence, a member of the Committee.
Subject to Budget provision and to such specific instructions as may be
given by the Committee, the Honorary Secretary without reference to

356 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

the Committee may pass for payment by the Honorary Treasurer all the
bills in connection with the Journal; salaries, and other expenses of
the Society.

‘In case of emergency, the Honorary Secretary in consultation with
the Honorary Treasurer may incur expenditure not exceeding Rs. 1,000,
subject to the submission of a report to the Committee.’

Rules 60 & 61

For existing Rules 60 and 61, Pes

‘60. The Honorary Secretary shall conduct the correspondence, and
shall be responsible for day to day administration of the Society’s
work. }

‘61. The Honorary:Secretary shall have supervision over all emplo-
yees of the Society and, subject to the control of the Committee,
shall see that the Rules and Regulations and Bye-laws, and the orders of
the Committee are executed.’

2nd Report, dated the 2nd July 1965
Rule 6
In the last’ line of Rule 6, for ‘ clause’ substitute ‘ Rule’.

Rule .46_.

In Rule ‘46, Heer. We ey sentence, “All contracts A gies a Asters,
Honorary Secretary ’°. |

Rule 62 cise

In Rule 62, for ‘ and other the servants’ substitute «and other officers
and servants’.

RESOLVED that the Rules be and are hereby amended as recom-
mended by the Sub-Committee!.

5. A Talk was delivered by Dr. H. Santapau, s.J., on the Indian
Botanic Garden, illustrated by colour slides of the Garden.

6. The meeting terminated with a vote of thanks to Dr.
H. Santapau, s.J., and to the Chairman of the meeting.

-+ The Certificate of Wedicieaion al the? Memorandum OF Assoviation of the
Society, ‘and the Rules and CEENIES as they stand alter these amendments are
printed. below- at--pp- 357-374. -

No. 448

Gertificate of Registration

I thereby Certify That the BOMBAY NATURAL
HISTORY SOCIETY is this day registered under the
Societies Registration Act No. XXI of 1860.

Given under my hand at Bombay the Fourteenth day
of March One Thousand Nine Hundred and Twenty Eight.

H. C. B. MITCHELL,
Registrar of Companies,

BOMBAY.

The Seal
of the Registrar
of Companies,
BOMBAY,

Bombay Natural History Society

(Registered under Act XXI of 1860)

MEMORANDUM OF ASSOCIATION

1. The name of the Society is the BOMBAY NATURAL
HISTORY SOCIETY.

2. The objects of the Society are as follows :

(a) To promote the knowledge amongst the public of
Natural History in all its branches, including
particularly the study of Animal and Plant life
of the Oriental Regions and the Zoo-Geogra-
phical Regions adjoining thereunto, both alive
and otherwise.

(b) To carry out researches in all branches of
Natural History and to assist with information
and advice as well as financially where possible,
other institutions and individuals in similar
pursuits.

(c) To provide, purchase, construct, equip, main-
tain and replenish a museum or museums or
other repositories for animals or plants living
or dead which are suitable for the study of
Natural History.

(d) To carry on the business of Taxidermists and

preservers.

(ec) To nominate and appoint members and to
receive and recover contributions from them in
aid of the objects of the Society.

(f) To engage and remunerate experts and other
staff for any or all of the objects of the Society

360 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

and to do and make all other acts, matters and
things ancillary thereto or necessary and con-
venient for the purposes of the Society
including the purchase or taking on lease of
land and buildings.

(g) ‘To borrow or raise money in such manner as the
Society may think fit and in particular by the
issue of debentures or debenture stock AND
in security of any such money so borrowed or
raised to mortgage pledge or charge the whole
or any part of the property assets or revenue of
the Society present or future by special assign-
ment or otherwise or to transfer or convey the
same absolutely or in trust and to give the
lenders power of sale and other powers that
may seem expedient and to purchase, redeem
or pay off any such securities,

(h) To lend invest or otherwise employ monies be-
longing to or entrusted to the Society upon
securities and shares or without security upon
such terms as may be thought proper and from
time to time to vary such investments in such
manner as the Society may think fit and to
deposit money with Bankers both upon current
account or for a term.

(¢) To do all or any of the aforesaid objects either
solely or jointly with another or others and to
enter into agreements for joint management,
joint working, collaboration and any other
arrangements with Societies or persons having
similar or allied objects which may further or
benefit the objects of this Society.

RULES AND REGULATIONS AS
AMENDED UP TO 1965

THE MEMBERS

1. The Bombay Natural History Society (hereinafter
referred to as ‘the Society’) shall consist of an unlimited
number of Members of either sex whose election shall be
vested in a Committee constituted as provided in Rule 32
(hereinafter referred to as ‘the Committee’). Persons who
were members of the Society prior to its registration shall
so long as they shall observe and comply with the Rules
of the Society be deemed to remain members of the Society,
unless they shall otherwise determine, but any life or other
subscription paid by them shall for the purpose of regulating
their position or status in the Society be deemed to have
been paid to the Society.

There shall be three classes of members—Life Members,
Ordinary Members and Honorary Members.

2. Every candidate for admission as a member other than
an Honorary Member shall be proposed and recommended in
writing by one or more members of the Society.

Entrance Fee

3. The Entrance Fee both for Life Members and Ordi-
nary Members shall be ?[Rs. 20/-] but the Committee may
from time to time vary the same. No person shall be deemed
to be a member until the entrance fee and subscription either
as Life Member or Ordinary Member has been paid.

4. No dividend, gift, division or bonus shall be made by
the Society unto or between any of its members in his or
their capacity as member only, but any member occupying
the position of a salaried official shall be entitled to receive
remuneration from the Society for his services,

- 2 By Resolution No. 8 dated 4-7-1957 the Committee has varied
the Entrance Fee to Rs. 5/-.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)
LIFE MEMBERS

5. Life Members are those members who have either on
election or at some later date contributed to the funds of the
Society in one sum a Contribution of Rs. 500/- or such other
sum as may be fixed by the Committee from time to time.
Provided that, such members shall be entitled to adjust against
the Contribution the annual subscription, if any, paid by them
for the current year.

In the case of an Ordinary Member who has paid the

annual subscription for not less than 20 years, the Contri-
bution for Life Membership shall be Rs. 150/-. Provided

that, an Ordinary Member of twenty years’ standing shall
be entitled to adjust against the Contribution the annual
subscription, if any, paid by him for the current year.

Corporate Bodies’ Membership

6. Scientific Societies, Institutions, Libraries, Clubs,
Ofticers’ Messes and other such Corporate bodies shall be
admissible as members in their Corporate capacity but shall
not be admissible to Life Membership; such bodies may
compound their annual subscription for a period of 25 years
by payment to the funds of the Society of a sum of Rs. 500/-
or such other sum as may be fixed under Rule 5 hereof.

7. The capital obtained from Life Membership contribu-
tions and compounded subscriptions shall not be used as
revenue but shali be invested in Government Securities and
the interest thereon only utilised as revenue. Provided always
that if and whenever the market value of the investments shall
equal or exceed the amount of the contributions and com-
pounded subscriptions paid by the existing Life Members and
the members who have compounded their subscriptions then
and in such case it will not be obligatory to invest any further
sums received by way of contributions from Life Members or
compounded subscriptions but the same may be used as
reyenue, |

RULES AND REGULATIONS AS AMENDED UP TO 1965

It shall also be permissible for the Committee to
decapitalize such investments and use the proceeds as revenue,
provided that the market value of the capital remaining invested
in Government Securities after such transaction shall not be
less than the amount of the contributions and compounded
subscriptions paid by the then existing Life Members and
corporate members who have compounded their subscriptions.

ORDINARY MEMBERS

8. Ordinary Members are those persons who on
election pay the entrance fee mentioned in Rule 3 hereof and
the annual subscription.

9. If any person elected as a member shall omit to pay
the entrance fee and annual subscription within 6 months from
the date of his election, the Committee shall be at liberty to
declare such election void.

10. The first annual subscription of members elected during
the months of October, November and December in any year
shall be considered to extend to the 31st of December of the
following year,

11. The admission fee and annual subscription of members
resident outside India, or of members absent from India shall
be the same as for members resident in India.

12. The payment of the entrance fee by a member shall
be considered as an acceptance by such member of all the
Rules, Regulations and Bye-laws of the Society including the
power to alter or vary the same.

Annual Subscription

13. The annual subscription of '[Rs. 25], or such other sum
as may from time to time be fixed by the Committee, shall
become due on the 1st of January in every year in advance.
No member whose subscription is in arrear may exercise his
privileges of membership; provided nevertheless that the

1 By Resolution No. 3 dated 9th June 1948 the Committee has fixed
the annual subscription at Rs. 30/-.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

Committee shall have authority to restore such defaulters on
payment of all arrears.

14. When any member shall be in arrear in the payment
of his annual subscription for two years he shall be advised
by letter, addressed to his last known place of residence, that
unless the amount due by him be paid within two months
his name shall be removed from the list of members, and
in the event of his failing to pay the amount within the
period stipulated, his name shall be removed from the roll |
of members. The Committee may, however, restore the
name of any person so removed upon such terms as they
may think fit.

Members’ addresses and changes thereof

15. Every member shall furnish in writing to the Honorary
Secretary his address and any changes therein. The Society
shall accept no responsibility for any loss or inconvenience
that may arise through failure on the part of the member to
carry out the provisions of this clause; nor shall it be
necessary for the Honorary Secretary to issue any notice to
members failing to do so.

HONORARY MEMBERS

16. Honorary Members shall be eminent Zoologists or
Botanists who have rendered distinguished service to the
Society and shall not exceed 10 in number. Candidates for
Honorary Membership shall be proposed by the Committee
only and shall be elected by a majority of not less than three
fourths of the Members of the Committee present, and any
person so appointed shall be denominated an Honorary Life
Member and shall have all the privileges of a Life Member
under the Rules in that behalf.

WITHDRAWAL AND REMOVAL OF MEMBERS

17. Every member, having paid all fees due by him to the
Society, shall be at liberty to resign therefrom upon giving
notice in writing to the Secretary.

RULES AND REGULATIONS AS AMENDED UP TO 1965

18. If any member shall have acted in a manner injurious:

to the good name of the Society or his membership shall have
become undesirable so that it shall become expedient to
remove his name from the list of members—the same shall be
effected by a resolution of the Committee to be confirmed by a
General Meeting of the Society. The proposition shall be
ballotted for and if eleven or more members vote and not less
than two thirds of the members so voting shall vote for such
member’s removal, he shall be removed from the Society
accordingly.

PRIVILEGES OF MEMBERS

19. Members have a right to be present and vote at all
General Meetings of the Society, to propose candidates for
election to the Society and to have personal access for them-
selves or at their request their friends to such collections of
the Society as are not open to the general public, to attend
meetings of the members or functions of the Society and to
introduce either in person or by signed orders visitors to any
such meetings of the members or functions of the Society.
Provided always that no friend or other person not being a
member of the Society shall be entitled to be present at any
General Meeting of the Society convened for the transaction
of the business of the Society. ©

20. Any member by making application. (in writing if
required) to the Honorary Secretary may have liberty of access
to the Society’s Library. Members may borrow for a stated
period from the Society’s Library such books as are not
required for constant reference, with the proviso that a member
shall be liable to replace any loss or make good any damage
to books while in his keeping.

21. One copy of the Society’s Journal shall be sent free to
évery Honorary Member and Life Member and also to every
Ordinary Member whose subscription is not in arreats.

DD went [* * *]

1 This rule was omitted by Resolution No. 4 passed at the Annual
General Meeting on 30th July 1965.

365
f

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)
23. Members shall have the right to purchase all publica-

tions of the Society at such price below the published price
as may from time to time be fixed by the Committee.

ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING, ELECTION OF
COMMITTEE, AND MANAGEMENT OF THE AFFAIRS
OF THE SOCIETY

Annual General Meeting

24. A General Meeting of members of the Society shall be
held annually in the month of March or as soon after as may be
convenient, on a day to be fixed by the Committee. The
Annual General Meeting shall be competent to receive and
adopt the Annual Report and Audited Statement of Accounts
of the Society for the past year and to transact any other
business which may be brought forward by the Chairman.

25. Notice of the time and place of the Annual General
Meeting shall be advertised in two of the local newspapers
at least 14 days before the same shall take place.

26. The course of procedure at the Annual General Meeting
after the chair has been taken shall be as follows:

(a) The reading of the Annual Report of the Committee.

(b) Presentation of the Balance Sheet and Statement of
Accounts for the past year.

(d) Such other business as may be properly brought biekats
the meeting.

Quorum : Adjourned Meeting
27. No business shall be transacted at any General

_ Meeting of the Society unless a quorum be present when the

meeting proceeds to business; 6 members personally present
shall constitute a quorum. If within 15 minutes from the
time appointed for holding a meeting a quorum be not present,
the meeting shall be adjourned to the same day in the
following week, at the same time at the Society’s Office, and if
at such adjourned meeting a quorum be not present within

RULES AND REGULATIONS AS AMENDED UP TO 1965

15 minutes from the time appointed for holding the meeting, the
members present whatever is the number shall be competent
to transact the business for which the meeting was convened.

28. Subject to the provisions of The Societies Registration
Act of 1860 and Rule 18 above, any question which
may arise at any General Meeting of the Society or at any
meeting of the Committee shall be determined by vote, each
member having one vote and the President or Chairman a
casting vote in addition to his own vote.

Extraordinary General Meeting

29. ‘The Committee may, whenever they think fit, convene an
Extraordinary General Meeting and they shall on the requisition
of at least ten of the members forthwith proceed to convene
an Extraordinary General Meeting of the Society.

30. Any request so made by members shall express the
objects of the meeting proposed to be called and shall be
left at the office of the Society. Provided that such requisition
may consist of several documents in like form each signed
by one or more requisitionists. Upon the receipt of any such
requisition the Committee shall forthwith convene an Extra-
ordinary General Meeting and if they neglect to do so within
one month from the date of delivery of such requisition at
the office of the Society the Requisitionists may themselves
convene an Extraordinary General Meeting for the purpose
specified and not for any other purpose, but no meeting so

convened shall be held for three months from the date of the -

delivery of the requisition as aforesaid.

MANAGEMENT OF THE SOCIETY

Executive Committee and Advisers

31. The government and management of the Society shall
be vested in a Committee consisting of (1) not more than
six ex officio members, namely one President, not more than
three Vice-Presidents, one Honorary Treasurer, and one
Honorary Secretary, (2) ten ordinary members, resident in
Bombay or within 200 miles of Bombay, and (3) the Secretary

367

368

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)
to the Government of India in the Ministry dealing with
Scientific Research or his nominee.

This Committee shall be assisted in an advisory capacity
by ten members chosen ‘by the Committee from amongst
members resident in the mofussil more than 200 miles from
Bombay. All papers in connection with meetings of the
Committee shall as far as possible be sent in advance to the
advisory members of the Committee.

Election of Committee

32. ‘The Committee for the time being shall annually cause
to be prepared a list of members whom they recommend to
be elected as members of the Committee in the ensuing year.
The names of the gentlemen so nominated shall be sent to
all members along with the notice of the meeting and it shall
be open to , members, having obtained the previous consent
of the nominee, to propose and second in writing within
7 days of the date of the meeting the names of any members
they desire to have elected. Inthe event of the number of
members proposed for the Committee exceeding ten, an election
shall take place. The election shall be conducted as follows:
A list of the names proposed shall be sent to every Life
Member and Ordinary Member resident in India who has
paid his subscription for the year and the member shall place
his initial against the names of those he wishes elected and

réturn._ the same duly signed by him in a special envelope
marked ‘Voting Paper’ to the Honorary Secretary - within

three weeks of the issue of the same.

33. No voting papers shall be opened until 3 weeks after
the date of the issue and they shall be opened by the
Honorary Secretary in the presence of two members of the
Committee and the result notified in writing to those elected

-and published in the next issue of the Society’s Journal for

the information of all members.

Vacancies

34. Inthe event of any vacancy on the Committee occurring
during the course of the year the remaining members of the

RULES AND REGULATIONS AS AMENDED UP TO 1965

Committee may fill up such vacancy whether it be of an
ex officio member or ordinary member.

35. The first Committee of the Society formed under The
Societies Registration Act, 21 of 1860, shall be the officers
and Committee of the unregistered Society in office at the
time of the registration of the Society whose names are set out
in the list annexed to the Memorandum of Association.

THE DUTIES OF THE COMMITTEE

Committee Meetings

36. The Committee shall meet at such times as shall be
appointed by the President or, in his absence, by one of the
Vice-Presidents, Honorary Secretary or Honorary Treasurer,
due and sufficient notice pang previously sent to every
member.

Quorum
37. At any meeting of the Committee 4 members shall
form a quorum.

Notice of Meeting and Agenda

38. Seven days’ previous notice of any meeting of the
Committee shall, as arule, be given in writing by the
Honorary Secretary, to each member of the Committee and
such notice shall specify the nature of the business to be

transacted. Business of an urgent nature may be conducted

by circular ; and in such case, it shall be necessary in order
to render valid any act of the Committee done upon a
resolution by Circular, that the Circular shall have been seen
by each member of the Committee present in Bombay, and
that the majority of members shall have voted in favour of
the resolution.

39, IPR RY
Decision by majority

40. The majority of votes shall decide every question
brought before the Committee and in case of an equality of

21 his Rais. was Bented by Resolution No. 4 piscedn, at the Annnel
General Meeting on 30th July 1965.

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370

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

votes the Chairman of the meeting shall have a casting: vote
in addition to his own.

Execution of contracts etc.

41. The President, Vice-Presidents or the Honorary Secretary
upon the direction of the majority present at any meeting of the
Committee at which not less than 6 members of the Committee
are present shall be competent to sign on behalf of the Society
any contracts, deeds, pleadings, and any other documents
relating to the affairs of the Society and not inconsistent in
their terms with the purposes or objects of the Society, or with
the Rules and Regulations.

Gratuity, Provident Fund, etc.

42. A majority of the Committee present at any meeting at
which not less than 6 members of the Committee are present
may, at their discretion, and whenever they think fit, grant to an
employee of the Society (whether employment be continued or
not) in consideration of past services, or to the widow or any
relation of a deceased employee either a pension or a bonus,
gratuity or compassionate allowance of such amount as the
Committee may fix, and upon such terms as they may pres-
cribe, to be paid out of the funds of the Society and the
Committee may also contribute out of the funds of the Society
to a staff provident fund.

Sub-Committees

43. The Committee may appoint Sub-Committees for any
purpose connected with the management of the affairs of the
Society.

Bye-Laws

44, The Committee may from time to time frame Bye-laws
for regulating the conduct and management of their business, or
of the meetings or functions of any Sub-Committee appointed
by them. But no such Bye-laws shall be inconsistent with any
of the purposes or objects of the Society or with its Rules and
Regulations,

RULES AND REGULATIONS AS AMENDED UP TO 1965

45. The Committee shall be competent to invite any
salaried: official of the Society to be present at their deli-
berations. :

Other powers of Committee

46. The Committee in addition to the powers and authori-
ties by these presents or otherwise expressly conferred upon
them may exercise all such powers and do all such acts and
things including powers conferred upon the Society by clauses
(g) and (h) of the Memorandum of Association of the Society
as may be exercised or done by the Society and are not hereby
or by law expressly directed or required to be exercised or done
by the Society in General Meeting but subject nevertheless to
the provisions of The Societies Registration Act of 1860 and of
these presents and to any Regulations from time to time made
by the Society in General Meeting provided that no Regulation
so made shall invalidate any prior act of the Committee which
would have been ‘valid if such regulation had not been made.

PATRONS

47. One or more person or persons may be invited to
accept the office of Patron of the Society at the discretion of
the Committee.

48. Persons who have accepted the office of Patron of the
Society prior to its registration shall be deemed to remain
Patrons of the Society unless they shall otherwise determine.

VICE PATRONS

49. Any member of the Society who shall subscribe in his
personal capacity a sum of not less than Rs. 5,000 to the funds
of the Society to be devoted to fostering any of the objects and
purposes of the Society shall, with the approval of the Commit-
tee, be appointed a Vice Patron of the Society.

50. A Vice Patron shall hold office until death or resignation.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

51. Persons who were Vice Patrons of the Society prior to
its registration shall be deemed to remain Vice Patrons unless
they shall otherwise determine.

BENEFACTORS

52. Any member of the Society who shall in his personal
capacity subscribe a sum not less than Rs. 1,000 to the funds
of the Society to be devoted to fostering any of the objects or

purposes of the Society shall be termed a ‘ Benefactor’ and

shall become a Life Member if not already so.

THE PRESIDENT AND VICE-PRESIDENTS

53. The President shall preside at meetings of the Society
or of the Committee and regulate all the proceedings thereat
and generally execute or see to the execution of the Rules and
Regulations, Bye-laws and orders of the Society.

54. In the absence of the President from any meeting of the
Society or of the Committee his place shall be filled by one of
the Vice-Presidents, or by a member of the Committee then
present, who shall for the time being have all the authority,
privilege and powers of the President. If no member of the
Committee be present at any Ordinary General Meeting, the
members present shall nominate and appoint to be Chairman
such member as they shall deem fit.

THE HONORARY TREASURER AND THE
ACCOUNTS

55. The Honorary Treasurer or his deputy shall demand
and receive for the use of the Society all monies due or
payable to the Society, and shall keep full and particular
accounts of all sums so received. He shall also from time to
time invest the funds of the Society as may be determined by
the Committee. An account in the name of the Society shall
be opened, and all monies shall be deposited with such Bankers

RULES AND REGULATIONS AS AMENDED UP TO 1965

as may be appointed by the Committee. No payment shall be
made by the Honorary ‘Treasurer without the authorisation in
writing of the Honorary Secretary or, in his absence, a member
of the Committee. Subject to Budget provision and to such
specific instructions as may~be given by the Committee, the
Honorary Secretary without reference to the Committee may
pass for payment by the Honorary ‘Treasurer all the bills in
connection with the Journal, salaries, and other expenses of
the Society.

In case of emergency, the Honorary Secretary in consulta-
tion with the Honorary Treasurer may incur expenditure not
exceeding Rs. 1,000/-, subject to the submission of a report to
the Committee.

56. An account shall be opened in the books of the Society
for every member of the Society stating the several sums
payable by him, and time of payment of the same. The
particulars also of all sums of money received and disbursed
in the several departments of the Society shall be entered and
the books and vouchers shail be open to the inspection of
every member.

57. The financial year of the Society shall end on the 31st
December of each year and all accounts shall be made up to
that date and shall be audited by one or more auditors
appointed by the Committee.

58. The auditor shall have the power of calling for a
statement of liabilities and assets of the Society and for any
information relative thereto.

59. The Honorary Treasurer shall make a report to the
Society upon the day of the Annual General Meeting and
present a Balance Sheet and Statement of Accounts for the
past year which shall be printed in the Journal of the Society.

373

374. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

THE HONORARY SECRETARY

60. ‘The Honorary Secretary shall conduct the correspond-
ence and shall be responsible for day to day administration of
the Society’s work.

61. The Honorary Secretary shall have supervision over
all employees of the Society and, subject to the control of the
Committee, shall see that the Rules and Regulations and
Bye-laws, and the orders of the Committee are executed.

THE CURATOR, ASSISTANT CURATORS, ASSISTANTS,
CLERKS AND SERVANTS OF THE SOCIETY

62. ‘The Curator, Assistant Curators, Assistants, Clerks and
other officers and servants of the Society with their respective
salaries and duties shall be subject to orders of the Committee
and they shall not under any pretence whatsoever receive any
perquisite or profit from their connection with the Society,
except that which shall be expressly allowed by the Committee.

63. Every servant of the Society receiving or paying money
on behalf of the Society shall be required before he enters upon
the duties of his office to give security for the due execution
thereof in such penalty and with such surety or sureties as the
Committee may deem expedient.

CERTIFICATE OF CORRECTNESS

We, being three of the members of the Committee in which
the management and government of the Society is vested, do
hereby certify that the above is a correct copy of the Rules and
Regulations of the Society.

G. V. BEDEKAR,
_ Humayun ABpu.att,
Dated the 30th of July 1965. ZAFAR FUTEHALLY.

Notes and News

The Salim Ali-Loke Ornithological Research Fund : An Announcement

We are happy to announce a donation of Rs. 10,000 by our Vice-
President -Dr. Salim Ali. It is intended that this sum will form the
nucleus of a research fund, the income of which will be used to promote
the development of scientific ornithology and bird preservation in India
by monetary assistance to and encouragement in other ways of biolo-
gists, both amateur and professional, in selecting whom preference will
be given to young workers. The fund will be known as The Salim Ali-
Loke Ornithological Research Fund to commemorate Dr. Salim Ali’s
long association with the Society and his life-long interest in birds, as
well as his abiding friendship with the late Dato Wan Tho Loke from
whose interest in birds, developed during his war-time association with
Dr. Salim Ali, both the Society and Indian ornithology have benefited.
An appeal for further contributions to the fund will be issued
separately.

- Another Announcement, and an Appeal
We are happy tg announce another generous donation by Dr. Salim

Ali, a gift of his + ae collection of natural history books and jour-
nals consisting of about 500 volumes and 1000 separates of scienti-
fic papers. 3

We would commend this example to our readers and ask them to
consider the desirability of preserving books of value for the use of
scientific workers, particularly books which are now out of print and
not available for purchase and which might otherwise perish or be lost
by passing to heirs who are not interested in them and do not realise
how precious they are.

Your Help is Needed: Bird Migration Study by the Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, D.C. :

Hundreds of thousands of ocean birds are being captured, marked,
and released on mid-Pacific islands in a widespread study of sea-bird
migration by the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Although
it is known that some kinds of birds perform annual migrations of
10,000 miles or more over the North and South Pacific Oceans, the
regular beats of most species are unknown or poorly understood.

To learn more about the migrations of sea-birds, Smithsonian orni-
thologists have captured and marked over 3,00,000 birds of 28 different
kinds in the Central Pacific with standard, numbered, United States Fish
and Wildlife Service aluminium leg-bands. Of these, over 60,000 have
been marked with 4-inch coloured plastic leg-streamers.

376 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2)

Anyone coming into possession of a banded dead bird in the Pacific
Ocean Area is asked to co-operate by returning the band, together with
time and place of recovery as instructed on the band. For live birds,
only the band number together with time and place of capture need be
sent to the address given on the band;.the bird should be liberated so that
its further travel may be traced. Please note that the Smithsonian
Institution does not want reports about birds banded by other organiza-
tions.

Anyone sighting a bird with a coloured leg-streamer anywhere in the
Pacific Ocean Area is asked to co-operate by recording the name or
description of the kind of bird wearing the streamer, the colour of the —
streamer, the date seen, and the latitude and longitude or approximate
location of sighting. All information on birds with coloured leg-
streamers should be sent as soon as possible to: Division of Birds,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. 20560.

Each co-operator will be advised where the banded or colour-marked
bird was tagged. Please help.

Symposium on ‘Recent advances in the development, production and
utilisation of medicinal and aromatic plants in Indja ;

A symposium on ‘ Recent advances in the development, production
and utilisation of medicinal and aromatic plants in India’ under the
auspices of Central Indian Medicinal Plants Organisation will be held
at Lucknow on 12, 13, and 14 January 1966.

The symposium will be confined to developments in the production
and utilisation of medicinal and aromatic plants in India since 1955.

For contribution of papers and other information, letters should be
addressed to Dr. S. C. Datta, Central Indian Medicinal Plants Organisa-
tion, 4 Sapru Marg, Lucknow.

Palynological Society of India

The Palynological Society of India, founded on 5 January 1965, has
undertaken the publication of the Palynological Bulletin (Annual), to be
issued in July-August, and the Journal of Palynology (Annual), to be
issued in December.

Membership of the society is open to all persons interested in the
study of pollen and spores, in India and outside. Members, depending
on the category, are entitled to free copies of one or both of these
publications.

Further particulars and membership forms may be obtained from
Dr. P.K.K. Nair, General Secretary-Treasurer, Palynological Society of
India, National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow.

r NOTES AND NEWS 377

An Appeal to our Lay Readers

Eighty years ago, in the very first issue of the Journal, the Editors
wrote: ‘In accordance with the character which this Society has
assumed from the beginning, the aim of its journal will be, as far as
possible, to interest all students of Nature, ever remembering that there
are many Naturalists, in the highest sense of the term, who have not
such a technical knowledge of any particular branch of the science as to
be able to enter with interest into questions of nomenclature and the
discrimination of closely allied species. The Secretaries of the Sections
[Mammals and Birds, Reptiles and Fishes, &c.] would, therefore invite
sportsmen and others to communicate anything interesting or worthy of
note, which comes under their observation, bearing on the nature and
habits of animals or plants.’

Our object remains the same and we repeat the invitation. The
flora and fauna of the Indian Region are so varied, and so little observa-
tion has been done in the field, that every intelligent person, independ-
ent of the extent of his technical knowledge, can help by noting im-
mediately and reporting on facts of Nature that interest him and by
asking questions about anything that puzzles him—we shall do what
we can to deal with his questions. All the relevant particulars should
be recorded, e.g. time, place, special features of the locality, details by
which the plant or animal concerned can be identified. Specimens
should be obtained and sent, where this does not involve serious
destruction. Do not be put off by the thought that these facts may be
known already. Even if this isso, we may be able to put you on
to other relevant facts of an interesting nature; and there is always
the possibility that you have come across something that is not generally
known. In a stray case, you may have discovered something that is
new to the scientists, and will be instrumental in directing their
inquiries in a new direction.

Gleanings
Cape Hunting Dogs (Lycaon pictus) in East Africa

In Nature, 30 January 1965, Dr. Wolfdietrich Kihme gives an inter-
esting report of the result of his observations of a pack of Cape Hunting
Dogs (Lycaon pictus) in the Serengeti plains extending over about four
months. Among other things, he reports that hunting was confined to
two definite periods, in the morning and the evening, which remained
unchanged from day to day, and there was no hunting at night.
Between these two periods game was seen to approach without be-
ing molested. The guarding of the puppies during the hunt was allotted
to the females and particular males. The meat of slain animals was
immediately swallowed bythe hunters and was then transported in their
stomachs to be disgorged and shared with the puppies and their guards,

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS
10 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS—30-11-1965. C3470

EDITORS: H. SANTAPAU, D. E, REUBEN, ZAFAR FUTEHALLY, & J. C. DANIEL

CONTENTS

NORMAL AND ABNORMAL Nests oF Eumenes emarginatus conoideus (GMELIN)
INCLUDING NOTES ON CREPISSAGE IN THIS AND OTHER MEMBERS OF THE

‘GENUS (VESPOIDEA, HYMENOPTERA). By S. D. Jayakar and H. Spurway .. |

FURTHER CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BOTANY OF DANGS Forest, GUJARAT. By
H. Santapau, s.J. and G. L. Shah

oe ee of

ON THE MARINE FAUNA OF THE GULF OF KuTCH. Part [l[—Pelecypods
(continued). By H. L. Kundu te

sf eo ea

ECo-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF THE INDIAN DesERT GERBILLE, Meriores

hurrianae (JERDON). III. Burrow temperature. By Ishwar Prakash,
C. G. Kumbakarni, and A. Krishnan é :

2 e a

OBSERVATIONS ON THE MATURATION AND SPAWNING OF THE BROWN POMFRET,
Parastromateus niger (BLOCH) IN SAURASHTRA WatTeERS, By T. E.
Sivaprakasam aA ae

NOTEs ON A COLONY OF THE WHISKER&D TERN [Chlidonias hybrida (PALLAS)] IN
DELHI, WITH COMMENTS ON ITS BREEDING STATUS IN INDIA. By Julian
P. Donahue and Usha Ganguli

ON A COLLECTION OF BRYOPHYTES MADE BY THE INDIAN CHO OyU EXPEDITION,
1958. By B. M. Wadhwa and J. N. Vohra

GALL-INHABITING ‘TUBULIFEROUS THYSANOPTERA—I, By T. N. Anantha-
krishnan and B. N. Ramamurthi ye

FURTHER CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF PAVAGADH HILL NEAR BARODA,
GusaRAT. By G. L. Shah and J. A. Inamdar

ON A NEW SPECIES OF COMMENSAL PORCELLANID CRAB, Polyonyx loimicola sP.
NOV., FROM INDIA: (CRUSTACEA, ANOMURA, PORCELLANIDAE). By
K. N. Sankolli she oe se Me

REVIEWS as vaste ae we Ae
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Efe ae ih

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HisTORY SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR
1964-65 oe ee ee i

SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS BY THE HONORARY SECRETARY FOR THE PERIOD
JANUARY TO APRIL 1965 ne ai

STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY
MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEBTING

CERTIFICATE OF REGISTRATION AND MEMORANDUM OF ASSOCIATION OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HiIsToryY SOCIETY

RULES AND REGULATIONS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY AS
AMENDED UP TO 1965

NOTES AND News He ee aig es

GLEANINGS we

{

193

201

211

237

245

254

259

266

279

285

292
299

336

341
342
353

357

361
SMe
378

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS
Mammals 3
Tae Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater. 2nd (revi d iti
colour by Paul Barruel and many other toseedc sie
eh aa : (Price to members Rs. 25)

28 plates in

| Birds
The Book of Indian Birds, by SAlim
many monochrome plates. :
eo ei (Price to members Rs. 20)
A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan, by S. Dillon Ripley II. An up-to-date
checklist of all the birds resident and migrant, including those of Nepal, Sikkim
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ae (Price to members Rs. 20)
ee ae Snakes — i ge tah
identification of Poisonous Snakes. Wall chart in English, Gujarati, and Marathi.
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5 ye } Miiscellaneons) 50) 00's eee eee
Some Beautiful Indian Trees, by Blatter and Millard. With many coloured and
’ “monochrome plates. 2ndedition. Revised by W. T. Stearn Rs. 20

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Butterflies of the Indian Region, by M. A. Wynter-Blyth. With 27 coloured and 45
monochrome plates... Rs.

un (Price to members Rs. 22.50)

Indian Molluscs, by James Hornell. With 2 coloured and many monochrome plates,
and text-figures.

(Price to members — Rs. 4.50)
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Kannada Rs. 9.62

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The Society will gratefully accept back numbers of the Journal, particularly
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TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP

ife Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 and a life membership fee of Rs. 500.
oeilinaey Meibers pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 and an annual subscription of Rs. 30.

The subscription of members elected in October, November, and December covers
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MEMBERS RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA
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the Society in Bombay on the ist January in each year. If this cannot be done,

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The National & Grindlays Bank Ltd., 26 Bishopsgate Street, London, E.C. 2.

Rs. 30.

Ali. 7th (revised) edition. 64 coloured and

~ Journal of the

Bombay Natural History Society

acy
7 ve Vol. 62, No. 3

Editors
H. SANTAPAU, s.).. D. E. REUBEN,
ZAFAR FUTEHALLY, & J. C. DANIEL

DECEMBER 1965

Rs. 15

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist ‘the
editors by observing the following instructions :

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publica-
tion to other journals or periodicals, or have ard been published
elsewhere, should not be submitted.

2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a |
sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered.

3. All scientific names to be printed in italics should be under-
_ lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial
letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and subspecific names
always begin with a small letter even if they refer to. a person or a
place, e.g. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni or Streptopelia chinensis suratensis
or Dimeria blatteri.

4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where

identification has been authentically established by comparison of
_ specimens actually collected. In all other cases, or where identification
is based merely on sight, binomials should be used.

5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good
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6. Text-figures, line drawings, and maps should be in Indian ink,
preferably on Bristol board.

7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the
paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged
titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics) - titles of books
not underlined (roman type), thus :

Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in Bast Nepal.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 (2) : 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Agiitaate Bombay.
Titles of papers should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting
the author’s name and year of publication, thus : (Banerji 1958).

9. Synopsis: Each scientific paper should be accompanied by
a concise, clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words.

10. Reprints: Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles
free of charge. In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be
‘given gratis to be distributed among the two or more authors. Orders
for additional reprints should be in multiples of 25 and should be
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of the manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage and
packing. oe

EDITORS,
Hornbill House, — ~ Journal of the.Bombay Natural
Opp. Lion Gate, . History Society

Apollo Street, Fort,
Bombay 1-BR.

VOLUME 62, NO. 3—DECEMBER 1965
Date of publication : 26-4-66
_ CONTENTS

Rivont ON THE STATUS OF THE onan Crack: OcTOBER 1965. By E. ‘P.
Gee. (With one coloured and four monochrome plates) eG :

FLORAL. STRUCTURE AND STAMENS IN Ceiba pentandra (LINN.) GAERTN.
By T. A. Davis and Abantika Kundu. (With seven text-figures)

CritIcCAL NOTES ON THREE SPECIES OF Capparis LINN. FROM PENINSULAR
InpiA. By R. Sundara Raghavan and Rolla Seshagiri Rao. (With a
map and four plates) — hi be 3 :

THE NIDIFICATION OF SOME COMMON INDIAN BIRDS—Part 2. By B. S. Lamba .

On Caulerpa fastigiata MONT. VAR. fastigiata IN INDIA. By Francesca Thivy
and V. Visalakshmi. (With 21 figures on two plates)

Fish FAUNA OF MUZAFFARNAGAR DISTRICT, UTTAR PRADESH. By C.L.

Mahajan. (With a map)

SOME PLANT RECORDS FROM THE ERSTWHILE CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR.

By K. M. Balapure

REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR OF THE INDIAN SPIKE-TAILED PARADISE FIsH,
Macropodus cupanus (Cuv. & VAL.). -By Bikas C. Pal and Charles
H. Southwick. (With two plates and a text-figure)

THE SNAKES OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA AND Socotra. By N. L. Corkill and
J.A.Cochrane. (With a map)

METRICAL AND NON-METRICAL VARIATION IN THE SKULLS OF Gm LIONS.

By Neil B. Todd. (With three plates) ..

NoTES ON INDIAN BirDS 5—THE RACES OF Apus affinis (J. E.GRAY) IN THE

INDIAN REGION. By Humayun Abdulali. (With one plate)

IN MEMORIAM
Robert Beresford Seymour Sewell

REVIEWS :
1. Carnival under the Sea. (P. Kannan)
2. The Year of the Gorilla. (J.C.D.)
3. Climatology : An Introduction. [(Dr. Miss) i Mani]

MIsCELLANEOUS NOTES :

1. Can young bats communicate with their parents at a distance? By
Major A. David (p. 539). 2. Notes on the hair of some bats. (With a text-
figure). By D. R. Patiland P. N. Chaudhari (p. 539). 3. Wild dogs. By
M. Krishnan (p. 543). 4. Occurrence of the Northern Palm Squirrel,
Funambulus pennanti Wroughton, in the Andamans. By Y. Chaturvedi
(p. 545). 5. A note on the breeding habits of the Whitebellied Rat, Rattus
niviventer mentosus Thomas. (With a photograph). By A. S. Rajagopal,
A. K. Mandal, and S. Biswas (p. 546). 6. Nest building by the Common
House Rat, Rattus rattus rufescens (Gray). By D.R.Sharma and S. Sivaram
(p. 548). 7. Strange find in elephant’s tusk socket. (With a_ plate).
By K. Rajagopal (p. 549). 8. Strandings of Finner Whale [Balaenoptera
physalus (Linn.)] near Virar (Thana District) and at Bombay, Maharashtra
State. By B. Robert Grubh and M. J. Pereira (p. 550). 9. The Great

379

394

412
425

434

440-

455

-- 463

475
507

521
529
534

536
537

Crested Grebe [Podiceps cristatus (Linnaeus)] in Kutch. (With two text-
figures). By M. K. Himmatsinhji (p. 551). 10. Notes on Indian Birds 6—
The occurrence of the Pygmy Cormorant [Halietor (Phalacrocorax) pygmeus
(Pallas)] in Baluchistan. An Addition to the avifauna of Pakistan. By
Humayun Abdulali and M. J. Pereira (p. 553). 11. Notes on Indian Birds 7—
On the size of the White Egrets in India (Egretta alba, intermedia, and garzetta).
By Humayun Abdulali (p. 554). 12. Occurrence of the Marbled Teal, Anas
angustirostris Ménétriés, in Maharashtra. By Humayun Abdulali and P.B. Shekar
(p. 555). 13. Simultaneous moult of remiges in Anhingidae. By Editors (p.555).
14. Occurrence of the Blackcrested Baza [Aviceda leuphotes (Dumont)] in
Madhya Pradesh. By Humayun Abdulaliand V. C. Ambedkar (p. 556). 15.
Winter food of the Painted Partridge [Francolinus pictus (Jardine & Selby)] in
Rajasthan. By Major A. David (p. 557). 16. The Whitecheeked Drongo
[Dicrurus leucophaeus salangensis Reichenow] : An addition to the Indian
avifauna. By P. K. Das (p. 557). 17. Pied Wheatear, Oenanthe picata (Blyth)
at Kanyakumari, South India. By Margaret E. Wilkinson (p. 558). 18. Notes
on Indian Birds 8—Occurrence of the Blackheaded Munia [Lonchura m.
malacca (Linn.)] near Bombay. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 559). 19. Two
ways to help nesting birds in your garden. (Witha sketch). By Thomas
Gay (p. 561). 20. Recovery of ringed birds. By CEditors (p. 564).
21. Plants eaten by Uromastix microlepis Blanford and other notes on this
lizard in eastern Arabia. By (Mrs.) V. P. Dickson (p. 565). 22. Land monitor
preying on bats. By K. K. Gupta (p. 566). 23. Gambusia and mosquito
control. (With a text-figure). By A. G. K. Menon (p. 567). 24. Sexual
behaviour in Lycosa chaperi Simon (Arachnida : Araneida). (With four text-
figures). By R. D. S. Bhatnagar and G. L. Sadana (p. 568). 25. A new
species of Epicrosejus Berlese (Acarina : Epicrosejidae) from Sitala in West
Bengal. (With two plates containing ten figures). By S. K. Bhattacharyya
(p. 573). 26. Odontotermes obesus (Rambur) [Termitidae : Macrotermitinae]
at 4500 ft. in Kumaon Himalayas. By Ganpat Singh Roonwal (p. 576).
27. Studies on the morphology and taxonomy of Indian Bostrychidae. VI.
A new species of the genus Bostrychopsis Lesne from India (Coleoptera :
Bostrychidae). (With a plate). By Kuldip Rai (p. 576). 28. A study of the
larval stages of Branchinella biswasi K. K. Tiwari (Crustacea : Branchiopoda).
(With two plates). By Tej Singh (p. 578). 29. Further records of marine
wood-borers (Teredinidae : Mollusca) from Bombay waters. By L. N. Santha-
kumaran (p. 580). 30. Ozobranchus branchiatus (Menzies, 1791) (Hirudinea :
Annelida) from Pulicat Lake, South India. By P. J. Sanjeeva Raj (p. 582).
31. Studies on the Chaetognatha of the Indian seas. Part VIII. On the
occurrence of Sagitta ferox Doncaster and S. hexaptera D’Orbigny in the
waters off Visakhapatnam. By T. S. Satyanarayana Rao (p. 584).
32. Studies on the Chaetognatha of the Indian seas. Part IX. Diurnal vertical
migration of some species of Chaetognatha in the waters off Visakhapatnam.
By T. S.Satyanarayana Rao (p. 586). 33. Cuscuta campestris Yuncker: A
new record for India. (With a text-figure). By H. Santapau and B. C. Korla-
halli (p.598). 34. Occurrence of Lindernia oppositifolia (Retz.) Muk. in W.
Bengal. By S.S.R. Bennet (p. 600). 35. Some observation on Cistanche
tubulosa Wight. By Charan Singh (p. 600). 36. Aerua persica Merrill:
A host of Cistanche tubulosa (Schenk.) Wight. By Y. Satyanarayan,
S. K. Saxena, and Y. D. Gaur (p. 602). 37. A new species of Laurembergia
Berg. (Haloragaceae) from Madras State. (Witha plate). By A. N. Henry
(p. 603).

GLEANINGS
NOTES AND NEWS

609

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

eo rmaeeetnigunrsee

Lower Dachigam in November, showing the River Dagwan

(Phoios - SEP, Gee)

JOURNAL
OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL
HISTORY SOCIETY

1965 DECEMBER Vol. 62 No. 3
Report on the Status of the
Kashmir Stag: October 1965

BY
E. P. GEE, M.A., C.M.Z.S.
(With one coloured and four monochrome plates)
CONTENTS
J. INTRODUCTION 379
II. GENERAL REVIEW AND SUMMARY OF REPORT .. 380
III. HisTORICAL 380
IV. GEOGRAPHICAL AND ECOLOGICAL .. 381
V. ADMINISTRATIVE AND POLITICAL 382
VI. GENERAL ACCOUNT OF MY VISITS . 384
VII. PRESENT STATUS AND FUTURE OF THE KASHMIR STAG 387
VIII. RECOMMENDATIONS 392
IX. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .. 392
X. GLOSSARY OF LOCAL TERMS 393
REFERENCES

Il INTRODUCTION

393

This report deals with the Kashmir Stag, Cervus elaphus hanglu
Wagner, 1884—known locally in Kashmir as the hangul and to some

sportsmen as the barasingha.

Although the hangul is a subspecies (of

the Red Deer Cervus elaphus of Europe), it assumes some significance as
being probably the only Asiatic survivor of this genus, since Cervus
elaphus wallichi (the shou) appears to have disappeared from the Eastern

380 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

Himalayas, and the present status of the other Asiatic subspecies is un-
known and rather doubtful.

It is not possible for me to provide a great amount of useful infor-
mation on the hangul, for my knowledge of it is only based on a few very
brief expeditions to its habitat during the past eight years and a perusal
of the available literature on the subject. Rather I am attempting in this
report to depict some of the background which may be useful to ecolo-
gists in the future ; and I am drawing attention to what is not known
rather than to what is known. I also refer to the necessary measures
which are not (so far as J am aware) being taken to ensure its survival.

Il. GENERAL REVIEW AND SUMMARY OF REPORT

The hangul of Kashmir are definitely declining in numbers, and.
at the present downward rate are certain to become extinct in the
foreseeable future—unless effective steps are taken to preserve them.
Considering that their main habitat is not only the main catchment area
of the Srinagar water supply but also a most beautiful part of the world,
it seems obvious that full protection should immediately be given to both
the. hangul and its habitat by the creation of a sanctuary or national
park.

Il]. HISTORICAL

Up till 1947 Kashmir was a princely state, and the hangul were re-
garded as ‘royal game’ by the Maharaja. As such they were strictly
protected in various game preserves or rakhs so that their numbers would
be sufficient to provide sport for the Maharaja and his friends.

_ Although there is a lot of data on where the deer were to be found, on
how to stalk them and on the measurements of the animals and their
antlers after they had been shot, very little has been recorded of their
life history, habits, social behaviour and so on.

And although there were game wardens and staff for the protection
of game, nothing is mentioned of the numbers of hangul in the old days.
No estimates have even been given, but after discussing this subject on
many occasions with experienced Kashmiris I am led to believe that there
may have been about 3000 to 5000 of them some sixty years ago, and
about 1000 to 2000 in the year 1947.

During the troublesome years that followed the constitutional acces-
sion of Kashmir to India and the objections of Pakistan to Kashmir
being administered by India, their numbers may have become depleted
to about 300, but by 1957 they seem to have increased a little, to (say)
400. In 1957-58 a rough estimate was made by the local staff which put
their numbers at 550—a figure which I think may have been on the opti-
mistic side.

REPORT ON THE STATUS OF THE KASHMIR STAG 381

By the end of 1960 enquiries revealed that they may have fallen to
about 250, and some people thought in 1962 that there may be only 175-
200 still in existence, although an official ‘ census’ in that year put the
population at 360. In February 1965 the local staff did another ‘ census ’
and gave their numbers as 280, but I always prefer to be more conserva-
tive in such matters and think there may be only about 180 left
alive today.

Fortunately not much of the habitat of the hangul is on or near the
cease-fire line between India and Pakistan, and most of the rakhs fall in
that part of Kashmir administered by India. The real danger, then, to
the survival of the hangul has been and still is the generally unsettled
conditions and not directly the military operations: It appears that
absence of real stability in the region has prevented genuine and lasting
conservation measures from being instituted. Priority is usually given to
the more immediate and pressing day-to-day needs of the people, to the
detriment of long-term measures designed to conserve nature and wild
life for the ultimate benefit of the country.

IV. GEOGRAPHICAL AND ECOLOGICAL

The part of the valley of the Jhelum which constitutes the broad and
beautiful Vale of Kashmiris approximately 5000 ft. above sea-level, with
the surrounding mountains rising up to 13,000 ft. and more. Numerous
tributaries flow into the Jhelum, and it is in some of these smaller and
narrower valleys that the deer come down to winter at elevations of
about 5500 ft. to 6000 ft.

The climate and vegetation of the valleys could be loosely described
as temperate 5000 ft. to 8000 ft., then sub-alpine 8000 ft. to 9000 ft. and
then alpine 9000 ft. to 14,000 ft. The summer range of the hangul is
spread over the mountains as high as 15,000 ft. or 16,000 ft., while in the
winter they come down to the valleys as mentioned above. By far the
larger number come down to Lower Dachigam (13 miles from Srinagar)
and neighbouring rakhs. These lower valleys include willow and oak
(the latter introduced from Britain) on which the deer browse in the
winter, while the upper ranges include blue pine, juniper and birch. A
beautiful stream named the Dagwan, stocked with brown trout
introduced from Britain about sixty years ago, flows through Lower
Dachigam.

In the centre of Lower Dachigam is the former shooting lodge of the
Maharaja, called Draphama Rest House, about 16 miles from Srinagar.
Three miles further up the valley is Phalipora Rest House. There are
several ‘ fire lines’, relics of old shooting days, which are still cleared
every year at the end of March to provide unobstructed views of the
deer to staff and visitors.

382. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

The only other deer existing in the area besides the hangul is the tiny
musk deer Moschus moschiferus which somehow survives near the snow
line in spite of being persecuted for its musk pod. Wild predators on the
hangul are the leopard Panthera pardus, the marten Martes foina inter-
media, the black bear Selenarctos thibetanus and the brown bear Ursus
arctos.

With regard to predators Ward (1921) records : ‘ Leopards take many
deer, both stags and hinds. Bears are always on the look-out for new-
born fawns. The Indian martens when huntingin families will pull down
fawns of six or eight months of age’; and Stockley (1936) writes :
‘Leopards are a terror. . . Kashmiris say that a leopard will spring on
a calf and lie on it without killing it, until its bleatings draw the mother
near enough for the leopard to seize her, and the calf is also then killed.
Two reliable observers have told me of coming on a scene which would
bear out this Kashmiri story, and in each case the interruption sent off
the leopard and the calf was quite unhurt, although the leopard had
been lying on it. ’ |

As for black bears Stockley (1936) has recorded : ‘ Black bears are
destroyers of new-born calves, and will work along a hill-side trying the
upward wind for the scent of hind and young’, Col. Harry Nedou has
informed me that he has seen a brown bear kill twenty sheep of which it
probably took away one to eat, but he does not think that bears kill deer.

But by far the worst predators of the hangul are human beings. These
vary from V.I.Ps., who somehow obtain a permit from the Prime (now
Chief) Minister of Kashmir to shoot a stag (supposed to be a protected
species) even inside Dachigam (supposed to be a sanctuary), down to
local villagers with their crop-protection guns. And high up in the
mountains during summer the professional graziers, shepherds and

goatherds (gujars, bakr-wallas) with their flocks of domestic animals have —

guns and dogs with which they seem to kill the deer whenever possible.

About these graziers Ward (1925) says : ‘ The disturbance caused by
the goatherds and the shepherds acts in a deleterious way on the best
stags, as they keep up high, seldom consorting with the herds.’ And
Stockley (1936) states: ‘They are too much poached by the gujars’,
and : ‘ By far the worst enemies of the barasingh are the gujars and the
shepherds.... Most damage is done amongst the hinds, and many
are shot in summer by the shepherds high above the treeline’. And Col.
Harry Nedou has again and again informed me of the havoc wrought by
poachers with their-crop-protection guns and by the gujars and bakr-
wallas with their guns and dogs. |

V. ADMINISTRATIVE AND POLITICAL b:

The preservation of wild life in Kashmir is the responsibility of the

Game Warden, who is (nowadays, at any rate) an officer of the Forest

REPORT ON THE STATUS OF THE KASHMIR STAG 383

Department and therefore under the Chief Conservator of Forests,
Due, however, to the peculiar status of Lower Dachigam, which possesses
(1) a trout hatchery with channels drawn off from the river Dagwan, (2)
a certain amount of forest as well as the hangul, and (3) a beautiful
rest house amid wonderful scenery where the deer come in the winter,
the place has successively been under the administration of (1) the
Fisheries Department up till 1954, (2) the Forest Department 1954 to
1960, and (3) the Tawaza (or Entertainment) Department 1960 to 1964,
and (4) again back to the Forest Department 1964 onwards.

So it is not difficult to understand why there has been some confusion
and lack of continuity in the administration of Lower and Upper
Dachigam which constitute the main habitat of the hangu/. Paradoxi-
cally enough, the deer probably received the best protection of all while
under the Fisheries Department, because the Head of that Department,
G. M. Malik, was not only an able officer but also himself interested in
the survival of Kashmir’s wild life.

But it is obvious that as the Game Warden, whose duty it is to
preserve the wild life of the State, is under the Chief Conservator of
Forests, and as there are considerable patches of forest in the area, the
place ought to be under the Forest Department—which should have sole
and full control and therefore full responsibility for the preservation of
the flora and fauna of the area.

The status of the 52 square mile Lower and Upper Dachigam was
originally a rakh or game preserve of the Maharaja. I understand that
it was notified as a sanctuary in Order No. 276/c of 1951 dated 14-3-1951
while under the jurisdiction of the Fisheries Department, but the other
Departments (i.e. Tawaza and Forest) do not appear to be aware of this,
and its status continues to be uncertain. (The Forest Department is
now maintaining a staff of 2 Rangers, 2 Deputy Foresters or Head
Watchers and 18 Game Watchers in the whole of Dachigam.)

The position of Dachigam is further complicated by the fact that
other Departments also have a claim on the area. For it is the catch-
ment area of the Srinagar water supply, with the Harwan reservoir just
outside the southern boundary, and the Irrigation and Water Works
Departments have a big say whenever discussions are held. In addition,
the Public Works Department is in charge of the road through Lower
Dachigam ; and the Electricity people go there to maintain the small
generator and overhead wires, with the Telephone people going there to
repair their wires. Also I hear that the Mulberry people are trying to
go there, and also graziers of domestic cattle !

Of course most of the above separate Departments have their role to
play and their own specialized work to do, but unfortunately there does
not appear to be much, if any, co-ordination between them, and they all
seem to act independently of each other,

384. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

Clearly it would be advantageous from every point. of view if only

one Department, preferably the Forest Department, were to be in over- -

all charge of the whole place, and if all the other Depeert were to be
subordinated.

Finally the character of the whole place has been changed by yet
another Department entering on to the scene. The Department of
Agriculture has recently entered the fray in a big way with a Government
Sheep Breeding and Research Farm. For this purpose about four
square miles of Lower Dachigam have been occupied, and Rs. 10,00,000
worth of buildings constructed. In addition to more than 1000 sheep,
there are a number of dogs (officially 4 but really about 40, soI was told),
goats (officially 15 but really about 40-50) and a staff of about 25 men with
extra men engaged in grass/hay collecting.

These sheep, together with the goats which are kept as ‘ leaders’ of
the sheep, are stall-fed during the winter and therefore do not compete
very much with the deer for food in Lower Dachigam. But in the spring
when the snow melts the sheep come out and enter into direct competi-
tion with the deer for the grazing in Upper Dachigam until the late
autumn. The effects of combining sheep and deer in the same range are
not beneficial to either, and these will be discussed later.

In the meantime it is sufficient to say that it appears to be a most un-
fortunate planning mistake that the Sheep Farm, which could have been
sited in other parts of Kashmir where there is good and even better graz-
ing, should have been allowed to be set up in the catchment area of the
Srinagar water supply which is also the home of the rare Kashmir Stag
and the main potential national park of Kashmir. ,

VI. GENERAL ACCOUNT OF MY VISITS

_ My first visit to Lower Dachigam took place early in April 1957,
when patches of snow were still on the ground and the spring flowers
were starting to appear. Nearly all the stags had already migrated to
higher elevations, but I saw quite a fair number of hinds and fawns.
They were not very shy, and I was able to photograph and film them
without much difficulty during a number of days.

I visited Upper Dachigam in September of the same year, camping
at Sangergulu at about 11,000 ft. I saw several hangul but they were
scattered in small groups and too far away to be photographed. Al-
though the summer flowers in the alpine meadows were nearly over, the
mountain scenery was simply magnificent, defying any attempt at
description.

I went to Lower Dachigam again in all its autumnal glory in early

November 1960, and in the thickets glimpsed-a finé 10-pointer stag with __

a group of hinds and fawns, But the majority of the deer had not yet
come down.

REPORT ON THE STATUS OF THE KASHMIR STAG 385

In August 1964 I paid a visit to Lower Dachigam, and was surprised
to learn that about ten hinds (but no stags) had remained behind in their
winter range and had not migrated to higher elevations. I also learnt,
after much questioning (with the Game Warden acting as interpreter),
that this phenomenon occurs every year. Some investigation, I think,
needs to be done to ascertain whether these hinds are barren ones, or
some of those which in alternate years do not breed, or very young or
very old non-breeding animals, or animals enfeebled to some extent by
injury or ill-health.

Finally, I spent nine days in Lower Dachigam in February 1965 when
it was still winter, in order to observe the hangul more closely and obtain
photographs of them in the snow. I found them much fewer than in
1957, and much more frightened of human beings.

Accompanied by Qasem Wani, the second Game Watcher, I set up
my cloth hide on 24-2-1965 and disguised it with branches and leaves,
near a salt-lick, and waited each afternoon. On the previous day we had
seen a 12-pointer stag, a 10-pointer, a 2-pointer and nine hinds at this
place when I arrived on the road ; and later that afternoon when I was
searching for the best place for erecting the hide three hinds came very
close, the leader uttering her staccato barks of apprehension. On
24-2-1965 when I sat up in the hide an 8-pointer, two 2-pointers and
about 30 hinds and fawns came to the lick and were photographed in
the fading light ; but they had become noticeably more wary than on the
first day. For the next two days none came. On 27-2-1965 about 30
hinds and fawns came out. Then for the next three days only wild pig —
came, no hangul : apparently they had become even more wary.

The reasons for this increased wariness were probably as follows:
Firstly, there was continual disturbance from some men of the P.W.D.
working on the road near by, the men employed by the Sheep Breeding
Farm, the men of the trout hatchery, the men of the rest house and others.

And secondly, a thaw had set in, and it appears that hangul, like the
Red Deer of Europe, may become more irritable and wary during a thaw
because of changes in humidity. Darling (1937) has observed that Red
Deer in Scotland are calmer and more approachable in dry atmosphere
with low humidity, or at saturation point : ‘if humidity remains steady
there is olfactory accommodation and irritability is lessened’. With
steady frost and steady humidity and still air there is less scent and the
deer are more approachable. But with variable humidity the deer be-
come more irritable, and snow in its onset and disappearance causes the
most spectacular movements of deer. :

While I was waiting in my hide for chances of photographing hangul,
a friend of mine accompanied Ghulam Hyder, the Head Game Watcher,
to observe the numbers and other details of deer seen on the mountain
slopes. A group of stags comprising a 12-pointer, a 10-pointer, an 8-

386 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

pointer and a 2-pointer was seen on several occasions. Small groups of
hinds and fawns up to 18 in number were moving here and there. But
there seemed to be no definite pattern in the groups, for sometimes a stag
or two accompanied the hinds and fawns.

The total number estimated to be in Lower Dachigam was said by
Ujaggar Singh (the Range Officer), Ghulam Hyder and Qasem Wani to
be in the region of 160.

The details given to me by S. Atta Mohmad Khan, the Game Warden
of Kashmir, of the annual ‘ census’ (really an estimate, I think, and to
be read with some degree of conservatism and caution !) conducted early
in 1965 are as follows :

LOCALITY STAGS HINDs FAWNS TOTAL
Lower Dachigam % 10 110 40 160
Tral Range be 28 69 * 97
Srinagar Range Pi 5 8 * 13
Dessu Rakh i, 2 8 ‘ 10

Grand Total 280

* In these cases the number of fawns is not given, and must be considered as
merged with adults.

In the above figures the alarming factor is the imbalance of the sex
ratio, especially in Lower Dachigam, where it is 10 stags to 110 hinds, or
1 stag to 11 hinds. Stockley (1936) mentions that in his time the ratio
was 3 stags to 10 hinds. G. K. Whitehead has informed me that he con-
siders the ideal ratio for Red Deer to be 1 stag to 1§ hinds. Darling
(1937) states that 1 stag to 2 hinds is the optimum ratio, and says that the
mature stags come-:first into rut, and that their fawns being born earlier
are the most likely to survive the following winter.

With so few stags in Dachigam, it means that they might suffer from
exhaustion during the rut, having to cope with a larger number of hinds—
especially if a spell of cold weather follows the rut. And with so few
mature stags available, and with disturbance from shepherds and others
up in the mountains, there will be less chance of the adult stags mating
with the hinds. Also younger stags will have more opportunity, and as
Darling (1937) points out the younger and immature stags come into
rut later, and their progeny being born later are less likely to survive the
winter. He says: ‘late calves would be better unborn, for the winter
takes, extra toll of them....a population diminishing by such means
is in serious danger of extinction ’.

Incidentally, hangul stags shed their antlers from the middle of March
to the end of April. The new antlers are hard and clean by the middle of
September when the rutting season commences. The height of the rut
is said to be about October 20th. The fawns are born in April and May,
and hinds usually produce in alternate years,

JourRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATES IT

Above: A tuwj and a hind in February. Below : Hinds, fawns, and an 8-pointer
stag near the salt-lick

(Photos: E. P. Gée})

PLATE III

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Above : A couple of hinds have a difference of opinion. Below ; The ‘hide’ from |
which the three foregoing photographs were taken, after the thaw |

(Photos : E.. .P. Gee) !

REPORT ON THE STATUS OF THE KASHMIR STAG 387

On my last day in Dachigam I visited the Sheep Farm in company
with Rashid Wani, Soil Conservation Officer ; and I am grateful to the
Manager of the farm for showing us round, Some details of the farm
have been given earlier in this report, and the probable effects of sheep
in a deer range are stated in the next section.

VII. PRESENT STATUS AND FUTURE OF THE KASHMIR STAG

The present status of the hangul is precarious. Although there have
been no real censuses conducted by competent persons on a scientific basis,
the rough estimates given in section III are a pointer to the direction in
which the hangul is heading :

YEAR No. OF hangul IN
KASHMIR
1900 3000-5000 ?
1947 1000-2000 ?
1954 300 ?
1957 400 ?
1958 550* Key. ? indicates my own estimate ;
1960 250* * indicates official ‘census’ figure
1962 : 360* 2
200 ?
1965 280*
180 ?

In addition to the above figures, which are for Kashmir, there are
reported to be a few, perhaps only half a dozen, hangul in the Chamba
District of Himachal Pradesh. These are said to be: under strict
protection.

Although the main habitat of the deer, Lower and Upper Dachigam,
was supposed to have been made into a sanctuary in 1951, nothing
appears to have been done to implement the Order. And although the
Kashmir Stag was placed by the Indian Board for Wild Life on the list
of species for full protection as long ago as 1952, nothing appears to have
been done to give legal protection to the animal.

Even if wild life preservation cannot receive a high priority from the
Kashmir Government, yet still the fact that Dachigam is the catchment
area for the Srinagar water supply is sufficient reason for the full protec-
tion of the whole yalley. So far from giving full protection to this
catchment area (which also happens to be the home of the rare hangul
and a potential national park), some grazing by domestic cattle and some
firewood collecting have been allowed there, and vast flocks of sheep have
been housed there.

Regarding cattle, Stockley (1936) has rémarked : ‘ Foot and mouth
disease has also taken terrible toll of the deer in the last ten years, and the
cause of this must be put down to errors of preservation. Every winter
large numbers of deer crowd into the safety of the State rakhs, of which

388. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

the principal, and far the largest, is Dachigam . . . . which is much fouled
by village cattle. ... These deer contract the fatal disease and carry it
up with them to the high grounds when the snows melt, infecting others
and spreading the disease over a wide area.’

Very recently some new-information has come in concerning the
danger of allowing domestic cattle to graze in wild life sanctuaries in
India. During 1964 Schaller (Shah et al. 1965) took sera of deer in Kanha
National Park, where a great number of cattle are somehow allowed
to graze inside the park. Examination of these sera with those taken
from deer in the United States of America shows that ‘.. . the antibody
prevalence in Indian deer (6 of 10) was higher than in the U.S. deer (1
of 39). A reason for this finding may be that in Kanha Park, the deer
are more likely to be in contact with cattle which graze in the same
forests and compete for forage.’ In a covering letter to me Dr

G. B. Schaller has pointed out that this virus (Myxovirus parainfluenza

3) ‘is the main agent causing shipping fever in cattle. It does not
affect the deer until they are put into a stressful situation—like food
shortage. Then it may kill them. The virus is undoubtedly gotten
from the cattle. Another reason for keeping cattle out of a sanctuary ! ’

Regarding the sheep, it is a fact that these are stall-fed in the winter,
and therefore there is perhaps no severe strain on the grazing/browsing
potential of Lower Dachigam in the actual winter. And at the rate of
one deer to 65 acres (ten per square mile) and one sheep to 25 acres, there
should be sufficient summer pasture in the mountains for both the deer
and the sheep (if the latter are restricted to 1000). But there are other
factors to be taken into account : |

1. DISTURBANCE from men, guns, dogs, goats and so on. In addi-
tion to the sheep actually grazing, some 25 men are in charge of the sheep,
and with firewood collecting, hay and grass collecting and so on, the
amount of disturbance must be very great all the year round. The men
possess some guns—ostensibly for self-defence and sheep-defence against
leopards and bears—and who is to know whether these guns will not be
used for shooting deer ‘ for the pot’ or for sale?

Darling (1937) says of a certain part of the Scottish highlands : “ The
presence of sheep is the reason for the few deer on these last-named areas.
Deer and sheep have similar tastes in grazing, and while the carrying-
capacity of a forest is lowered by even a light sheep stock, say one to-ten

acres, there is disturbance by men and dogs which is, I think, of greater — |

importance ’.
The existence of similar tastes in grazing is confirmed by Murie (1951)

who says : ‘ Sheep are as “‘ omnivorous ”’ in their selection of plant foods

as elk and they get over all kinds of terrain. Here we must recognize
direct competition, from every standpoint,” And Smith (1953) says:

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PrAre Ly

‘Rubbing trees’ in Lower Dachigam, where the stags thrash their antlers
(Photos: J. N. Newton)

Hinds in the undergrowth of Lower Dachigam in April, after a thaw
(Photo: E. P. Gee)

JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

The Dagwan River, above the Draphama rest house,
April

(Photo > EE. P. Gee)

PLATE V

in Lower Dachigam,

REPORT ON THE STATUS OF THE KASHMIR STAG 389

‘ The similarity of deer and sheep diets is sure to cause conflict wherever
the supply of preferred species is inadequate to satisfy the requirements of
both animals’.

2. PARASITES AND DisecAses. There is always great danger that the
parasites and diseases of the sheep may spread to the deer. Longhurst
(1954) says of blacktailed deer in California that they shared with sheep
21 species of parasites. And that this affected the deer adversely because
both competed for the same forage and in the winter the sheep received
supplementary food from man, which the deer did not. » As the result
of lack of food and parasitism many deer died during the winter while the
sheep survived.

And Whitehead (1950) says of sheep that they ‘ have so many of the
same parasites and diseases that attack deer, and they mayeven introduce
other ailments to which deer are not normally exposed ’.

My own considered opinion is that unless Lower and Upper
Dachigam can be constituted into a sanctuary or national park to be
entirely under the jurisdiction of one Department (the Forest Depart-
ment) to the exclusion of all other interests except water supply and trout
hatchery, and unless all grazing by domestic cattle and firewood collect-
ing can be eliminated, and unless the sheep can be removed, and unless
the hangul can be given full protection—unless all these measures can be
effectively taken, not only will the hangul become extinct but also the
catchment area of the Srinagar water supply will ultimately become
denuded, eroded and ruined.

It has been officially stated by the Kashmir Government that they are
shy of making Dachigam into a sanctuary or national park because the
entry of visitors would contaminate the water supply. I myself cannot
understand this argument. For a few visitors entering by car, on pay-
ment of a fee, and stopping at the Draphama Rest House, would not
contaminate the area, as must do the labourers working on the road, the
men of the sheep farm and so many others ! And when massive fire-
wood cutting was once done by 200 labourers, was there then no outcry
against contamination ?

The steps listed above need to be taken in order to save the area and
the wild life from destruction. In addition, I recommend, and have been
for the last eight years recommending, that a small number of hangul
be kept in an enclosure somewhere between Dachigam and Srinagar for
the purpose of ensuring the survival of the deer and also for providing a
tourist attraction. This would not be a difficult or expensive step, and
it has been done before in the time of the Maharaja.

Of capturing these deer and keeping them in captivity, Ward (1921)
says :

‘In order to capture full grown stags and hinds it is essentially

390 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

necessary to choose suitable ground. A well-wooded southern slope
under a ridge of hills with a pronounced low dip in the range is an ideal
place. On the southern slopes of the mountains few trees grow, they are
covered with grass.

‘The herd of deer having been located in the northern woods are
slowly driven upwards by a few well-trained men during the day time when
the breeze blows upwards, in other words the deer are “‘ given the wind ”’,
If not hustled too much they will work their way to the lower part of the
range. When close to the top, the beaters fire a gun or shout, the herd
breaks into a gallop, and dashes wildly down the southern side. There in
the grass are set long lines of plaited nooses made of sound leather and
attached to ropes which are in lengths of about 50 to 60 yards. These
ropes are pegged down, but not too strongly. The deer get their feet
entangled in the nooses, drag up the pegs, and make off with a line of
rope and nooses, but before going far they are pulled up by the bushes,
and it is then that the fun begins for nets have to be employed. Stags
are easier than hinds to net, for as a rule they lower their heads, and the
horns get into the meshes, but the hinds use their feet and strike out
violently.

‘Once in the nets, the hard work is over, a collar with ropes on
opposite sides is fixed on the neck, and the hinds can be led away. The
stags have generally to be picketed on the spot, otherwise they plunge
about and knock themselves and their captors out of time. Ina day or
two the deer will drink water in which parched flour has been mixed.
They are easily tamed, and seldom die.

‘ Another way; but a laborious one is to catch the fawns before they
canrun. First they are fed on goat’s milk squeezed from a sponge, then
from a baby’s bottle, and finally a nanny goat is a foster mother. Most
of the deer at Pandrathan paddocks were thus reared. In captivity the
Hangul breeds freely.’

About this species of deer in captivity Ward (1925) says :

‘....the herd wandered about in the day time and returned to
their evening feed before dark. At night they were all housed in a shed
which was surrounded by a fence in order to save them from leopards,

‘....after the farm and plantations increased, they had to be
enclosed in paddocks where they have done well, and bred freely.

‘Kashmir deer do very well in semi-captivity provided the
enclosures are not too small, and part of it is roughly covered with stones,
these are best placed near the fences where the animals mostly stand. If
the ground of the paddocks is smooth and soft the hoofs will grow very
long, and eventually have to be cut.

‘The enclosures must be sufficiently large to allow of the deer
running round, this they almost invariably do in winter especially when
snow is falling.

REPORT ON THE STATUS OF THE KASHMIR STAG 391

‘A variety of food is necessary, mulberry and hawthorn leaves are
appreciated, sweet hay, lucerne, sugar-beet and turnips, also horse chest-
nuts cut into pieces—sugar-beet and carrots seem to be the favourite
foods—bran and salt have to be provided but grain is not necessary,
about two pounds of bran will suffice.

‘...In September thick poles must be put into the ground in order
that the velvet may be rubbed off by the deer, large branches may be
thrown into the enclosure, which the stags will throw about and play with
and thus aid the burnishing....it should also be remembered that
many gallons of water will be required every day for each animal, and if
a hollow can be made where a mud bath can be got the captive deer will
be greatly pleased.’

: I am quoting these extracts in full, because the sources of them are
difficult to find in a library, and almost impossible to obtain in any book-
shop.

Of keeping this species in captivity at Woburn Abbey in Britain, the
(twelfth) Duke of Bedford (1949) says :

‘The Hangul or Kashmir stag is, of all the races of the Red deer,
the one which is most sensitive to internal parasites and the one most
incapable of being kept on grass. We had, however, a fine herd in a large
yard, up to the time when the war led to their destruction.

‘When elaphine deer are kept in a confined space it is necessary
either to breed from very young stags only or, if adult stags are used, to
saw off their horns ; otherwise they are very liable to injure their hinds
in a fit of jealousy during the rut. The removal of a deer’s hard antlers
of course causes no pain, though it spoils his appearance for the rest of
the season.

‘The call of the Kashmir stag is somewhat intermediate between
that of the wapiti and the European Red deer and I have seen it rather
well described by the letters “‘ Aaaungrieeeew”’?! In other respects
there is nothing particularly wapiti-ish about the Hangul, but it is a mis-
take to describe him, as some writers have done, as “ exactly like” our
Red deer. He is a grey beast rather than a red one; his bay tine is nor-
mally longer than his brow and he rarely has much of a “cup”. A
10-point head is the normal one and any greater number of points is far
more unusual than in the case of the Red deer enjoying equally good
feeding. Two Kashmir stags | have known were remarkable, one for a
constitutional peculiarity, and the other for a mental one. The former
was one of the first deer of the species we had and was tried on grass,
with the result that he soon got into miserable condition and became a
mere bag of bones. Notwithstanding this he grew an enormous pair of|
antlers which for length and width exceeded anything I have ever seen
on one of his species. Usually ill-health and poor condition have a very
adverse effect on a stag’s horn-growth even if he is well-bred for antler-

392 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISY. SOCIETY, Voi. 62 (3)

production. Incidentally a deer suffering from internal parasites can
normally be restored to health by putting it in a gravel yard and feeding
it on dry, nourishing food, with plenty of corn.

‘The other Kashmir stag lived in a small paddock at the London
Zoo and was remarkable for the fact that although a normally developed
breeding animal, and none too amiable towards the human race, he
showed no jealous ill-temper in the rutting season towards the young stags,
his sons, who shared the same enclosure with him and his hinds. Any-
one who knows anything about deer will realize that such amiability is
astounding, and if possible even more remarkable than that of the park
master-stag mentioned by Millais, who would allow himself to be photo-
graphed by his owner, in October, at a distance of a few feet ; and the
fallow buck who, at the same season, would enter the house and lie down
beside his master’s chair !’

VIII. RECOMMENDATIONS

I make the following recommendations :

1, That Lower and Upper Dachigam be constituted a sanctuary,
and eventually a national park ; and that other activities such as sheep
breeding, cattle grazing, firewood collecting, etc. be eliminated.

2. That the full control of Lower and Upper Dachigam be vested
in one authority only, preferably the Forest Department, and that all
rest houses, roads, etc. be under the jurisdiction of this one authority.

3. That the Kashmir Stag or hangul be given full, legal and
effective protection wherever found, both inside and’ outside its
sanctuaries.

4. That a scientific study and census be conducted by 4 competent
ecologist to determine the exact status of the hangul and to make recom-
mendations for better protection and management of the species.

5. That a number of hangul be captured and kept in captivity in
a suitable enclosure somewhere near Srinagar, and also at Simla if a
Himalayan Zoological Park materializes there.

LX. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to D. P. Dhar, the Home Minister of Kashmir, for his
encouragement on several occasions ; and to G. Naqushbund, the Chief
Conservator of Forests, for the co-operation of his Department. Also
particularly to S. Atta Mohmad Khan, the Game Warden, for his help
unfailingly given ; and to Rashid Wani, Soil Conservation Officer, for
helping me on two visits to Lower Dachigam. And to Ujagger Singh
(Range Officer), Ghulam Hyder (Head Game Watcher) and Qasem Wani
(Second Game Watcher) for their interest and assistance to me.

REPORT ON THE STATUS OF THE KASHMIR STAG

393

And above all, I am indebted to that keen sportsman, H. H. the
Maharaja of Kolhapur, for his help and encouragement in our joint effort
to get the Kashmir Stag preserved for posterity.

X. ‘GLOSSARY OF LOCAL TERMS

bakr-walla. a goatherd
barasingh(a).
Deer in Madhya Pradesh.
gujar. a professional grazier
hangul.
rakh.
shou.

tuj.

the ‘ Sikkim ’ Stag
the same as a ‘ pricket

> in British Red Deer

the Kashmir Stag in Kashmir, and the Indian Swamp
(Lit. twelve horns)

the Kashmiri name for the Kashmir Stag
a game preserve in the old days, in Kashmir

: a young stag with

its first and short, stick-like antlers

REFERENCES

BEDFORD, (TWELFTH) DUKE OF (1949) :
The Years of Transition: 246-247.
Andrew Dakers Ltd., London.

DARLING, F. FRASER (1937): A Herd
of Red Deer. Oxford University Press,
London.

Gee, E. P. (1961) : Report from India :

101-102. Oryx 6 (2). London.
oe — (1964): The Wild Life, of
India: 105-107. Collins, London.

Loncuurst, W. M., DouGLas, J., &
BAKER, N. (1954) : Parasites of Sheep
and Deer. California Agriculture 8 (7):
5-6.

Morig, OLAus J. (1951): The Elk of
North America: 297. The Stackpole
Company and the Wildlife Management
Institute, U.S.A.

Morris, R. C., & ALI, SALIM. (1955) :
Game Preservation in Kashmir. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53 (2) : 229-233.

SHAH, K. V., SCHALLER, G.B., FLYGER,
V. , & HERMAN, C. M. (1965) : Antibodies
to * Myxovirus parainfluenza 3 in Sera of
Wild Deer. Bull. Wildlife Disease Assoc.
1: 31-32.

SMITH, J. G., & JULANDER, O. (1953):
Deer and Sheep Competition in Utah.
Journal of Wildlife Management 17 (2):
101-102.

STOCKLEY, C. H. (1928): Big Game

Shooting in the Indian Empire: 148-
149. Constable and Company Ltd.,
London.

———— (1936): Stalking in the

Himalayas and Northern India: 178-
192. Herbert Jenkins Ltd., London.

TALBOT, L. M. (1959): A Look at
Threatened Species: 100-104. Fauna
Preservation Society, London.

Warp, A. E. (1921): Big Game
Shooting of Kashmir and Adjacent Hill
Provinces. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
28 (1) : 45-49.

———— (1925): The Mammals and
Birds of Kashmir and the Adjacent Hill
Provinces. ibid. 30 (2): 253-259.

WHITEHEAD, G. K. (1950): Deer and
their Management: 36, 71. Country
Life, London.

Floral structure and stamens in
Ceiba pentandra (Linn.) Gaertn.

T. A. DAVIS AND ABANTIKA KUNDU
Indian Statistical Institute, Calcutta

(With seven text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

Ceiba pentandra, a tropical Bombacaceous plant, popularly known
as the Kapok or Silk Cotton tree on account of the silky floss produced
in its capsules, is distributed in South America, West Indies, Tropical
America, India, and Ceylon. It flowers in India and Ceylon during
the colder months, from November to March every year.

From the aestivation of Ceiba pentandra, \eft- and right-handed
flowers are distinguishable as is the case with most other species of
Bombacaceae, perhaps all species of Malvaceae and Cochlospermaceae,
and a few of Sterculiaceae, Linaceae, Caricaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Pal-
mae, and Plumbaginaceae. In a tree, the two types of flowers are pro-
duced almost in the same proportion, and the percentage of the lefts
does not differ significantly from that of the rights in any large flowering
shoot or even a flower-cluster.

FLORAL ASYMMETRY

A fully-opened flower measuring about 5 cm.x5 cm. has five white
oblong petals which are connate at the base and downy externally. A
petal is about 3 cm. long and 1 cm. broad. The petals are characteris-
tically twisted, either clockwise or anti-clockwise, and this condition
is more pronounced in the bud stage. In a Ceiba pentandra tree, the
two types of flowers occur almost in the same proportion, a situation
observed in many species of Malvaceae (Davis 1964). When viewed
apically, a flower is considered left-handed (clockwise contorted aesti-
vation) if the inner margin of a petal curves clockwisely towards the
periphery, and right-handed if it curves counter-clockwisely. In Figure
1 are seen a right-handed and a left-handed flower. Even from a single
petal it is possible to determine the direction of the petal-twist, since

FLORAL STRUCTURE AND STAMENS IN CEIBA PENTANDRA 395

there is usually a mild depression and a colour-difference on it due to
the overlapping of one of the neighbouring petals.

Fig. 1. Rig

Table I gives-data on floral asymmetry from 8 trees, 4 from near
Colombo and 4 from Calcutta. On the totals, the left- and right-handed

TABLE I

Ceiba pentandra: DATA ON AESTIVATION FROM 8 TREES

No. of Aestivation

f, | ;
Date of observation tecest Leh Right ek ESR X
18-12-1962 te 28 WO F470. 14 .0°4170
20-2-1964 I 53 Bey 83 731 1.6:3795
do. hae 139 i407 6279 1 * 0-0036
do. fo) 192 181, 373 11 —-0°3244
9-3-1964 fer 102 178 370 14 0°5297
Total 8 804 W157 33, >. 16482)
x =0°6914
1
X =6:9568
4

flowers are almost equal with a slight excess for the left-handeds. But
the difference is not statistically significant, (oa —ogag However,

one tree produced significantly excess left-handeds. As this tree has
the smallest number of flowers, perhaps with large samples equality for
the two types of flowers could be expected. It may be mentioned in
this connection that a significant excess of left-handed flowers was
observed in Hibiscus rosasinensis in spite of very large samples collected

throughout the year and from different places (Davis & Selvaraj 1964 ;
: :

396 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) “

Davis & Ghoshal in press). Further investigations are under way to get
an explanation for the slight excess of the left-handers.

DISTRIBUTION OF LEFT- AND RIGHT-HANDED FLOWERS

1. Between large flowering shoots. The aestivation of the corolla’
of flowers from four Ceiba pentandra trees growing at Lunuwila, a vill-
age about 50 km. NW. of Colombo, Ceylon, was examined by the senior
author on 18 December 1962 and the basic data are presented in Table
II. From these trees altogether fourteen flower-bearing shoots were

TABLE II

Ceiba pentandra: \LEFT- AND RIGHT-HANDED FLOWERS FROM 4 TREES
(LUNUWILA, CEYLON, 18-12-1962)

be Tp FA a, 2 SH tee 1D eel ee One

2-2) L842 OE 82. Rie! M900 OR oy 62h Moon

30 3 89 PR 1038) Rega ee

4D age ay io epee ORO aa SR ehe4 0 904

5 AS ue B53 eS 5 ee 1s ee ee

6 Es Ao A6y dy SRG oA 126), Bn G6 ee a

7. BR “AT g Ri ST: Rie don 5 Rueion aR oan

8 Rae eR ge og OR otes PRY moog ei

9. Ye agte wm :) go 5120 Ss Re ai Gon eae oo eee
10°. L350. Re 90" Ly ease. Re ee oe
11. L e8eS1 5 sea eAOI Vo Re eld weeR + allan lego eee
12°) «Ro 52% R 92,” ROE? eRe eee
130 ROS 8 Rd eR I ee
420° De $4 De 9a a4 ae ee
1 L855 OR OR aL. 135. 2 gai ee
16 Ls °56 R196. R-.1360 ie eR ee
17 RST Re oF OE rise i ee
i) Lo. 580 Le 2 08 RS 138 Re a cee a
19. L359 90 RS 1380) Ro poe a
20. R60. Le 100, E140 22 180 Ree
21,2.R°. 61 RS 10 Ra eR IS ee
2300 Re 622 102 RA eee
53 Re 68 SR 03 Bb 49 Re 83 a a
Mo R64 Re AOA 14 OR) 184 Ree
95. 65 1050 Re eRe
DG ion IR nO Gowe-sdpped OG eat, (146. Ee eRe lech ren
7 Ro -- Ole > L101 RO MAT Re SS Ree
28) Ro 68 dR 108 Ry 148 8 ene
29. U6 R109" (ER 40)" Oa oe
30° L070 L110” 150, RY 90> i eoee
31 RT Raat RS ie
320) Ea 7!) GR 1d) fy 1 Oa 15D, RE OD) ae
33. Ro 730. eR 183 ye 153 Re Cd ee
BA RPA Se) ada a Sd ale a are
35° Ro 75 OR Or iis= © War 165 8 Met 1950) anes mee
36.0 1? 76 RA. REIS 6 16 86 ee eer
87 ba Ts R.A ge
38° RO 98 kd A TB es 158) i ae ee
39) aR FO RE) 119: Do dO ON TRO yas ae
40. Ri §.9180,-2R° 1120. Roe RS 200") Roe

FLORAL STRUCTURE AND STAMENS IN CEIBA PENTANDRA 397

ee a

PAs eS wens 4/321 1) Ro. 36h Ris 40 Ro 444 R:
Pi eee 6) Re 92? - L362 > Ro. 40) R” 440°. R
Pe ee meneame 6303 Lo 638) IL 403 WL, ¢ 443. R
Ply 4 i 304 RR 6d a SR
Damme Ree OR See ile 4 325). Ry. 365-5 ple 4050 R445." R
View el hee. R326, L366 406 «446° RR
DA Re OR Te Da koe by. 367s I AOI: -. Tan 447. L
Die as. Re 308. 1s 3368). gk. 4084," 448° OL
Pate te 8 289- R | 329 I 8 360° SR 409, CR: 449. °R
Phe 00 eR 330) Lk. 370). «Re 410° R=. 450“ -R
PS eer a Olmert Re taste UR 87s Re Ai Py 451. OL
pe Ree DOF i ag hes B70. eh, WAI . 8452 7,
Pai Re 9S ee 335 Ie. 399 oe 4, 453 SR
PSR ID Re sd Rosa Ie AI a ASR
Pe ee 85. WR 385 eR 375° I O45 IR: 455 0 R
Prop ea OoGn 9306) R376. E416 1 456 RR
eee OT ho 337 IR 377 OR geal? Re 457
oer Re 208 = RY 6338 R398 eR 418 458 OR
icra be 00 WR e397 OR 379) R419 1k. 4500
Pee Ue amoU0e = ORe 3400 1 380. Es 420° 460" LL
omen 30la PRewe34l Ro. SRihs STS at 46k OR
Ho we e302 R340) R638) OR 422 Re. 462 - L
Pipe 2308) Pr 343 OR A383 R= 423 468-8
onl eat be 344 cbs 36421. 6 424° Ro 464.
Ae ee iOS oo Le 45 Re 385 a 405 RS aes,
Reber G06) > ban s4o ie 386 Re 406 i 466 OL
Pope ao07 R34), 2 Ro p.38. R407. a 467)
PGCE Raw S08) Reen548 1 bs S4988,- R498) ES - 468 ok
Dene i 5007 es esdon Re 3go) 2) 490° R469
One 10) oR s350e > L 6990 R430" OL 4708 = R
Pile ek le 5a Lee 301 Lo 4st OR

Di Re tee Re eR 390 fF Ro ad2 OR

Pepe 2316 UR. 35S \ 30s 4398 OR

PRN Ragan Sasha NN Row S04 BRS 4347 TL

Dip Rs ERG 3558 Lf . 305 aL A350 L

TGR alG RS 5G e L, 306 OR A862 |. 1

il SIG ee B57 OR sO 437 8

Tim A186 Rn 3581 Ine 398 RY 438 OR

Pipe e19; 22, R359, 399 er RS 439° oR °
P20) eR 520" R360. Ro 400" L449" eR

lopped and the flowers examined branchwise. All the flowers (includ-
ing flower-buds) of a shoot were accounted for before proceeding to
another, and the number of flowers per shoot ranged from 25 to 60.
Unfortunately, data on the actual number of shoots per tree, and flowers
per shoot could not be maintained.

An examination of the flowers of the above trees showed a slight
excess for the right-handeds but not significantly more, the X? value
being 0°417. In order to see whether any shoot bore a significant
excess of one kind of flower or the other, the data are plotted on a con-
trol chart: (Fig. 2) for the proportions of the lefts. The 470 flowers
have been arranged into ten groups of 47 each. The central position
of p (estimate of proportion of lefts) and the 3-sigma limits on either
side of p were calculated, and the corresponding figures for each group

398 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

plotted [values for p=0°494, p+-3 S.E. (p)=0°713, and p—3 S.E. (p)=
0275]. It is seen that all the points fall well within the acceptance

1:0

CONTROL CHART FOR THE PROPORTIONS
OF. LEFT - HANDED FEOWERS

PROPORTIONS OF LEFTS

O 2 in Be a 10
GROUPS OF 47 FLOWERS EACH —

Fig. 2. Control chart for the proportions of the
left-handed flowers :

limits. Another point of interest, incidentally, is that 4 points fall
clearly below the central line and 4 above it while 2 are almost on the
central line. So far as the present observations are concerned, the
control chart, suggests that, in the population, the lefts and rights are
about in equal numbers on each flower-bearing shoot.

2. Between flower clusters. Flower buds in Ceiba pentandra appeat
in clusters from the axils of old or shed leaves at every branch tip. The
tree is usually devoid of leaves while blooming. The inflorescence is
normally a fascicle, and from the position and/or size it is possible to
recognize the flowers according to the sequence of their production—
in most Malvaceous species where the flowers are solitary and axillary
it is more easy to follow the order of production. The aestivation of
the corolla of the entire flowers sampled from 4 trees at Calcutta during
the 1964 season was determined and recorded according to the order of

their production for every fascicle. Solitary flowers and clusters bear--

FLORAL STRUCTURE AND STAMENS IN CEIBA PENTANDRA 399

ing two flowers were rejected. Data on those having three and four
flowers per fascicle are given below :

TABLE III

Ceiba pentandra : FASCICLES OF 3 FLOWERS EACH

Observed Expected

i L, L | 7 6°3725

L Le R 9 do..

Es R i; 6 do.. =
Ly R R 9 do.

R R R pe. do.

R R L ib do.

R i RY: 8 do.

R L L 3 do.

5] ‘i

_ Of the 51 fascicles, 4 belong to tree 1, 18 to tree 2, 23 to tree 3, and
6 to tree 4. Pb rise bi

TABLE IV

Ceiba pentandra : FASCICLES OF 4 FLOWERS EACH

Observed NN Expected

Piles WROTE z aoe ———
4 R 1 (Peete et S68 75
Lids Saat 7 6°7500
ae 2 R | (Creaesetage tl 10:1250
3 5 Lok | 9 | 6°7500
es : 0 | 1:6875

27 |
NR Es a SRY ed AA ee, eel ee

Of the 27 fascicles, 7 belong to tree 2, 13 to tree 3, and 7 to tree 4.
Inflorescences bearing five and more flowers are dealt with sepa-
rately for each tree and the data are presented in Tables V to VIII.
_ The X? value and p value for each cluster are calculated. For tree 1,
_ the X’ value with seven degrees of freedom is 2°206, for tree 2 with
twenty-three degrees of freedom it is 22:245, for tree 3 with thirty-two
degrees of freedom it is 25°414, and for the last tree with thirty-three
degrees of freedom it is 29-760. It is clear from the above values that
there is no suggestion that a fascicle produces significantly an excess
of left-handed or right-handed flowers.
Since the numbér of flowers per fascicle is rather small, not exceed-
ing 12, the application of the X? test under such situation may not be

400 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

TABLE V
Ceiba pentandra, TREE 1: SPIRALITY OF FLOWERS ON DIFFERENT SHOOTS

Saeet Flowers . eR P;j
1 RB. Be Le aR e ie eal e dean re 6.4 0°7538
2 Et AR) Aveta lee eR 3 2 1:0000
3/ Risky aL. UR sy sar ae 4 3 1:0000
4 oR "he Ee ace 1, 4 1 0°3750
5 ROSE, ee ie 4 1 0°3750
6 RF Ree | 3.6 9 10000
7 R ob EY SRY Re a ORR ae 5 5 1:0000
8 R 3uR te os a Reece 3 8 1:0000
32 21
: 2
XxX =2:283
1
\, —=2:206
Sf
QO, =4-4887
TABLE VI

Ceiba pentandra, TREE 2: SPIRALITY OF FLOWERS ON DIFFERENT SHOOTS

See Flowers die. Psy
1 RB Re Re oR 4-- 4 0°3750
2 RS ee LL eee Situs 1:0000
3 Ly Selb wae alls feet: Se 0°4531
4 eh Re Roe R Dies 1:0000
5 Le AR spa RoR Rae) 0°4531
6 5 iS aos oem oe ks ee | 0°3750
i Rose Re GRa basa ee 3 4 1:0000
8 ART Ge Ree Rea Ale ey 1:0000
9 RER Ree Rear 0. 5 0°0625

10 Ret eG eee oe 4 3 1:0000
11 RORY. Ree ee Baers 1:0000
12 Ton UR oles a Ree es 5/3 0°7266
13 Rew ee OR Rete ae als 5 4 10000
14 Re lia TAR. AR ele OR Pea | 0°6875
15 Ro ek {Re eA Lae ReGeE 4 4 1:0000
16 Ro Ree baR dds Datos 1:0000
17 Rai) Ree eR AR 1 4 0°3750
18 i oR, Rye ae ea AD, 0:6875
19 Te Das, Ree Dee Pal ee ee he Ge: 548, 0:2891
20 RoR is ed ei Rea 2 4 0:6875
21 Rov bee RoR 1 4 0°3750
22 Ree ee Ree Rae Di 320 0°6875
23 iy "Ree TOR ab aR eo) 10000
24 Re Roe Reis ele tee 2 ae) 1:0000
x,” 0-432
1
2
x * =22:245
23

Q.,=22°6769

FLORAL STRUCTURE AND STAMENS IN CEIBA PENTANDRA 401

appropriate. Therefore, a more suitable test, the Pearson’s PA test
(Rao 1952) has been applied thus :

The exact probability of obtaining as large as or a larger deviation
than the | : 1 ratio for the left-handers and right-handers is calculated

TABLE VII

Ceiba pentandra, TREE 3: SPIRALITY OF FLOWERS ON DIFFERENT SHOOTS

Shoot Flowers | ER Ps;

hoeRo ee) Bon. TOR. Se ae 6 4531
Deere RaeRe fh, R= LS RR Toe ee te 0.4531
Se Rete bl R 2 20-0875
A one OR< ET, 3. 21-0000
Sgr de TR RAC RS A, 3. 3 10000
awl ole RoR le Rs eR G4 07538
ee cb, be Lok. aR A Dir 2076875
Rerie OR CR Re RoR fhe 51) 00-2188
aah Ride Rick 4. 163750
ire ae eo LR 4 3 / 1-0000
(roa eats oie re Mo es 02188
(er aR PRR LL 2 3 — 1:0000
Cece yee ROL Ek 5a) 02188
iy hn RR Be R 23> = 14,0000
oe eR Eb OR RR 4 4 — 1:0000
ioe ee ERe RO ROT RR D5 4 024531
ime 1g Ri RR 2-3. _4,£:0000
eR eR). ROL 2 3 710000
Deere PRR br io RR 2 502) 04531
Podge ieee Re oh aR 3) £23 10000
Big eh PRO AL ok, 3. 2 — 10000
Peni ie RO RE 6 “Bi 0:2891
aria RL OLR 3-2. 10000
Me Pik Ro Rt Bi a2 120000
Pekar ARR 2 3 1/0000
ee eR si Wo RR 3 0000
el GR RL ROR Be A” 816875
See gk ele by We RE “RR 4 4 10000
Bere te RE 23.2, “0000
seer el ak ROB R 2. 4. 6875
ieee eR OR gi Lk R Aah 1,0000
See BOR eR Lor R 3 Bin, 0000
eR le ROR. oR ea (0:3750
100 101
2
X =0-0049
1
2
2 peace
32
Q.,=25-4193

for each observed shoot for each tree. For each tree, these exact prob-
abilities are then pooled up. For the /-th tree on which k; shoots are

402. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 62 (3)

observed, if Dz, Pi2,.- >; Pn, denote these probabilities, then the statistic
k,
0; =— z log, Pi; is distributed as a X%? with 2 degrees of free-
j=}
TABLE VIII

Ceiba pentandra, TREE 4: SPIRALITY OF FLOWERS ON DIFFERENT SHOOTS

Bo Flowers LR Pj
i Rn? RoR se 3 eee, Melee ie 4055 1:0000
2 LR RR RCE ROE eR ER Ree 4 8 0°3877
3 Ri RL RE Re 3255 0°7266
4 fo Re. OE es Re oie 333 1:0000
5 L VE De R a Roe ere ee ae SG 2 Bee 0°7538
6 Roi dea Rea Le Ce Be wie el 62 0°2891
a, Ion he Reet bee Re 4 2 0°6875
8 RY Ee OR FR ere 32S 1:0000
9 R LOR Re 213 1°0000

10 Re Ro: ee * RoR A. toe 0°3750
11 De: Beare Rea Am? 0°6875
12 Rieds 4 eel ese REE Da i2 0°4531
13 ie Resi oR oR lee kk 4 4 1:0000
92) ER RR OR ae 3.5 «07266
15 kL RAL sR Re RD oe eee aie 57.16 1:0000
16 R REGS te Lebo! See 6 4 0°7538
17 Rees bee: Aa? 0°6875
18 Rik ks as ATE et 0°3750
19 i A Re aR Re ee en ss ele Sc 83 0°7266
DO Rea eis ORB: NS AS 1°0000
21 Roe Ro Re Date 0°6875
22 R GREE CoRR. Views ue 36) 1:0000
23 Ey ARS bs Re ae BS res 1:0000
24 Bek. ee Re a a ee Semel 0:0391
25 bees Re eRe RR Rea eae 5 16 4:0000
26 fy Re CORO Re Reps 2. 4 0°6875
Zh ToS Re SR Seas leeds 8 x33 0°2266
28 RoR Rea 41 Se Baa Ree ee Ae O6 0°7538
29 Reb Rs ee Ae ip ae 53 0°7266
30 bo EL ARE DL SRO SIR Ree dee ie ae 8 4 0°3877
31 R= By ke. GREG eaRee Re ee Le Say 29) 1:0000
32 Ro i Re Raab Roe 5 ee 0°7266
33 Rob Bo Ra R D2 453 1:0000
34 R Re ORE Chas eR 2° 34 0°6875
139 124
2
Mv =0°8555

x * =29-7603
33
O,=30°6158

dom. The statistic O = &; Q; is distributed as a X? with 2 Sk, degrees
of freedom. Table IX gives the values of Q,-’s and Q.

FLORAL STRUCTURE AND STAMENS IN CEIBA PENTANDRA § 403

In all the cases Q; fell below the5 per cent point of the correspond-
ing distribution. It is thus seen that there is no evidence against the
hypothesis of the | : 1 ratio between the left- and right-handed flowers
in the various shoots for all the 4 trees observed.

TABLE IX
Tree No. k; Qi
1 8 | 4°49
2; 24 22°68
3 33 25°42
4 ; 34 30°62
99 O=83'21 d.f. 25k =198

From the results of the foregoing different tests, it may be concluded
that the left- and right-handed flowers of Ceiba pentandra are distri-
buted in almost equal proportions within flower-clusters, between large
flower-bearing shoots, and between trees in centres far away from each
other. On the aggregate, there is a slight excess of left-handers, but
the difference is not statistically significant. A similar situation was
met with in Bombax ceiba (Davis in press). With Hibiscus rosasinen-
sis and Abutilon indicum the differences (excess of lefts) were statistically
significant. It may be recalled that the leaves of Cocos nucifera are
arranged in five spirals running clockwise or anti-clockwise and, here
again, the left-spiralled palms in a locality are slightly in excess of the
right-handers and this character is not inherited (Davis 1962). How-
ever, in the Southern Hemisphere it is the right-handers that are in
excess (Davis 1964a).

DEVELOPMENT OF THE PETAL-STAMEN CORD

By examining several transverse sections prepared in series of young
as well as old flowers, especially of the androecium and corolla, which
are partially fused at the base and therefore shed together when the
flower withers, the following information was obtained.

At an early stage, the vascular traces separating from the central
core, above the thalamus, can be easily made out. Ere long these sepa-
rating traces form somewhat into a ring and a thick, mostly parenchy-
matous tissue surrounding these traces separates into the calyx. The
calyx covers the corolla and the essential organs of the flower com-
pletely during the early stages of development. Due to the difference
in the rates of growth of the calyx and the rest of the flower, the dome
of the calyx ruptures along three to five lines, and these openings extend

404 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

almost half the length of the calyx, thus distinguishing themselves into
3-5 sepals. Incidentally, the flowers of the 4 trees sampled possessed
only four (about) sepals each.

At an early stage, enclosed by the calyx, may be seen a somewhat
wavy ring having 10 prominent vascular traces distributed at regular

RIGHT LEFT

Fig. 3. Some stages in the development of the petal-stamen
cords in right- and left-handed flowers

intervals. The wavy ring assumes a pentagonal shape and this petal-
stamen cord develops into the whorls of corolla and androecium. In
figure 3 are given some stages of the development of the petals (as well

FLORAL STRUCTURE AND STAMENS IN CEIBA PENTANDRA 405

as the staminal ring) in a right-handed and a left-handed flower. In
stage one may be seen the pentagonal petal-stamen cord with five pro-
minent vascular traces at the corners and five relatively smaller ones
between the corner ones. The corner traces undergo a tangential
division once and the peripheral half of each trace forms the initial
vascular trace of a petal. The inner half of each corner trace divides
into two again, thus resulting in 15 traces for the rest of the ring. The
vascular trace at the region of a future petal undergoes further divisions
as the petal goes on expanding. By examining the divisions of the
traces in the petals of several flowers, it was seen that in a left-handed
flower more traces are formed towards the left half of the petal, and
vice versa in a right-handed flower.

The petal initials at an early stage are located far away from each
other (vide fig. 3 stages 2A and 3A) and are completely independent.
Later on they are further fused with the rest of the ring which ultimately
develops into the base of the staminal ring. However, in stage 2 of
fig. 3, three petals appear to be united at the base. At stage 4, the
petals tend to twist, one of their distal ends overlapping the petal either
on its left or right, and this determines whether the corolla will have a
clockwise or counter-clockwise contortion. We do not know yet the
factor(s) responsible for the twisting of the petals of a particular flower
clockwisely and another conversely. In figure 3 are seen a right-handed
and a left-handed flower showing five main stages in the development
of the petals up to the stage where their imbrication becomes clear.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE STAMENS

In stage | of figure 4 is seen the staminal ring possessing fifteen
vascular traces. This is the stage just after the differentiation of the
petals from the rest of the staminal ring. One vascular trace each from
two adjoining corners and the undivided one located between them
form the basis for a single stamen. Thus, the fifteen traces go to form
the five stamens, on account of which the species is perhaps named
C. pentandra. Up to stage 4, the filaments of the stamens are united
and, beyond, the three vascular traces of a stamen fuse together end-to-
end. These traces gradually curve (concave outside) resulting in the
formation of a prominent groove on the peripheral face of each filament.
From the fifth stage, the filaments are free and each of them bears three
almost reniform anthers at its tip. Each trace connects an anther,
and the flower has 15 anthers in all. Cobley (1957), however, mentions
that the staminal tube divides at its apex into from five to ten parts,
each part bearing a twisted one-celled anther.

In figure 5 are seen some of the abnormal forms of stamens.
The fifteen anthers are usually borne’ on five filaments, but rarely

406 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

the filaments may split or fuse in various ways resulting in two to ten
distinct stamens per flower. A stamen may have only one anther sup-

Fig. 4. Six stages in the development of the androecium
in Ceiba pentandra

- ported by a filament whose width is about a third of a normal filament:
Presumably this filament has only one of the usual three vascular traces.
Another stamen may have two anthers, others may possess anthers
ranging up to 10. No combined filament having more than 10 anthers
was noticed. Also, no flower was met with where all the filaments
remained fused up to the anthers into a monadelphous tube.

As these abnormal types of stamens are rather common, their occur-
rence was estimated for a population of 100 flowers per tree for the four

FLORAL STRUCTURE AND STAMENS IN CEIBA PENTANDRA 407

trees (only 75 flowers from tree 1). Data on the left- and right-handed —
flowers were accounted for separately as may be seen in Table X. Free

Fig. 5. Flowers showing abnormal combinations of stamens

TABLE X
Ceiba pentandra : PARTICULARS ON FLORAL ORGANS

Tree Stamens Petals. :
No. Flowers Free Double Treble Others Normal Short Sepals

a 5 ge ES ee rey ——

Left-handers i
l 41 193 — — 141 65 152/41
2 50 215 21 3 — 232 17 178/43
3 50 218 17 1 2 227; 24 188/43
4 50 230 11 2 — 249 -— 155/38
Total 191 856 57 6 Z, 849 106 673*
Mean 4°482 0:298 0°031 0:010 4°445 0°555 4:079
Right-handers
1 25 109 5 4 — 95 31 81/20
2 50. 210 14 4 1 238 © 13 176/44
5 50 227 14 1 — 205 45 169/40
4 50 211 14 2 — 250 _ 168/41
Total his Tey) 47 11 ] 788 89 594**
Mean 4:326 0:269 0:063 0:006 4°503 0°509 4:097

*Total sepals for 165 flowers ; **Total sepals for 145 flowers

408 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

stamens are those that have one to three anthers (mostly three) and the
filaments are distinct up to the base where all are united. Double sta-
mens possess more than three anthers but not exceeding 6, and treble
ones possess anthers ranging from 7 to 9. It may be seen from Table X
that both the lefts and rights possess almost.the same number of stamens,
free as well as the other combinations. The rights have a slightly smaller
figure for the free stamens, but the difference is not statistically significant.

SIZE OF POLLEN GRAINS

The size of the pollen grains was estimated for a few flowers from
only one tree. Two hundred normally developed pollen grains each of
six flowers were measured. Though a pollen grain of Ceiba pentandra
is somewhat spherical, its trigonous form is distinguishable; the distance
between two corners was measured and the data are given in Table XI.

TABLE XI

Ceiba pentandra: SIZE OF POLLEN GRAINS

_Mean length of pollen Variance of pollen
Flower No. ~ Dry Soaked Dry Soaked
1 54:1904 62°4272 18°1364 90°9552
2 53°2356 61°2788 29°6460 —s- 604419
3 55°7700 61°8156 11°7109 52°3920
4 53°1476 65°0452 22°6280 31°4813
5 51°4096 61°4460 18°7792 36°7375
6 54°8152 60°7420 21:0772 141°2312

Measurements of dry pollen were taken a few hours after the pollen grains
were extracted from the anthers. Further quantities of the dry pollen
grains were soaked in distilled water and measurements were made when
they swelled to their maximum, to find out the percentage increase in the
size of dry pollen. Variances for the values for the dry and soaked pollen
grains were also calculated. The over-all mean length of dry pollen
grains was found to be 53°7680, and that for soaked pollen 62°4448y.
Nair (1962) gave the equatorial diameter of Eriodendron anfractuosum
(Ceiba pentandra) pollen as 60p. There is an increase in size of 16°14%
when a dry pollen grain swells in water. |

In another set of six flowers, the percentage sterile (infertile or
underdeveloped) pollen grains was estimated by treatment with 1%
acetocarmine solution. The data as given in Table XII show that the
particular flowers examined bore 35-95% infertile pollen grains.

FLORAL STRUCTURE AND STAMENS IN CEIBA PENTANDRA 409
MORPHOLOGICAL VARIATIONS

A few peculiarities were observed in some flowers of Ceiba pentandra
which are mentioned below.

TABLE XII

Ceiba pentandra: STERILE AND FERTILE POLLEN

Flower No. Sterile Fertile Total

1 25 92 fle?
2 11 105 116
3 31 716 107
4 30 80 110
5 26 103 129
6 60 53 113

183 509 692

% Sterile pollen=35:95

In an appreciable number of flowers of three trees, one or more petals

(all petals in some) remained very short ; this is due to certain congestion
operating inside the calyx tube at an early stage of unfolding of the petals.

Fig. 6. Some abnormal flowers of Ceiba pentandra

A. Flower with an additional ovary; B. Flower showing a petaloid
stamen; C. Flower with six petals; D. and E. Flowers with some
or all petals compressed

However, the stamens and style emerge undisturbed to their normal
length. The flower in Fig. 6, E has all the five petals affected, while in
flower D only two are short, the remaining three petals spreading to their

410 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

normal length. 14°67% of the petals from flowers of the three trees
showed this peculiarity. However, one tree was absolutely free from this
compression of petals. Further details on this may be seen in Table X.

In one flower the aestivation of the petals was imbricate with one petal
completely in and one of its immediate neighbours completely out. The
three others showed regular twisting (Fig. 7, B).

. Fig. 7. Partial floral drawing of some abnormal
flowers of Ceiba pentandra

In another flower (Figs. 6, C and 7, C) an extra petal was observed.

The five petals which formed the normal corolla_twisted anti-clockwise
and the sixth petal, which was completely out, was located between the

calyx and normal corolla.

A petaloid stamen was also noticed in one flower (Figs. 6, B and 7, A).
One of the four filaments of this flower flattened considerably and
assumed the shape and size of a petal. There was no trace of an anther
on this petaloid stamen unlike those in many petaloid stamens of
Hibiscus rosasinensis or even Bombax ceiba (Davis & Mariamma 1965).

Additional ovary was observed in another flower (Fig. 6, A). The
flower had the usual syncarpic ovary comprising five pistils which were

on
4

FLORAL STRUCTURE AND STAMENS IN CEIBA PENTANDRA 411

fused upto the stigmatic end. An extra carpel free from the rest, though

_ underdeveloped, grew from the base of the normal ovary. This carpel

had an independent style and stigma.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We thank Shri S: K. De, Artist, Crop Science Unit, Indian Statistical
Institute, Calcutta, for the illustrations.

SYNOPSIS

The corolla of Ceiba pentandra, typical of Bombacaceae, is contédrted;
all the five petals in one flower twisting clockwise and in another counter-
clockwise. The left- and right-handed flowers of this species are dis-
tributed in a 1:1 ratio within flower clusters and within large flower-
bearing shoots, as well as between trees in centres very far from each

other.
two kinds of flowers.

The development of the petals and stamens was studied in the
But the mechanism which regulates the
asymmetry in the corolla could not be known.

The two kinds of flowers bore similar numbers of stamens, both free

and combined ones.

The size of the pollen grains was estimated.
14°67% of the petals of flowers from three trees. failed to unfold

properly.

A few flowers showing striking variations are also briefly described.

REFERENCES

Cos.ey LESLIE, S: (1957) : An introduc-
tion to the botany of Tropical crops.
Longmans, Green and Co., London.

Davis, T. A. (1962) : The non-inheri-
tance of asymmetry in Cocos nucifera.
J. Genet. 58(1): 42-50.

-—=_——. (1964): Aestivation in Mal-

Nature 201 (4918): 515-516.

(1964a) : Possible geo-physi-
cal jafinence on asymmetry in coconut
and other plants. Proc: FAO Tech. Work-
ing Party on Coconut, Colombo 2 : 59-69.

———— (in press) : Floral structure

vaceac,.

- and stamens in Bombax ceiba? J. Genet.

& GHOSHAT, K. K. (in press):

Variation in the floral organs of Hibiscus
rosasinensis Linn: J. Indian bot. Soc. 44.

———— & MariAmma, K. O. (1965) :
The three kinds of stamens in Bombax
ceiba. Bull. Jardin Botanique de I’ Etat:
35 (2): 185-211.

& SELVARAJ, C: (1964):
Asymmetry in Malvaceae. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 61 : 402-409.

Nair, P. K. K. (1962): Pollen grains
of Indian plants—III. Bull. National
Bot. Gard., Lucknow, No. 63:

Rao, C.R. (1952) : Advanced statisti-
cal methods in biometric research. John
Wiley and Sons, U.S.A.

Critical Notes on three species of
Capparis Linn. from peninsular India

R. SUNDARA RAGHAVAN AND ROLLA SESHAGIRI RAG
Botanical Survey of India, Poona

(With a map and four plates)

The genus Capparis Linn. is represented by nearly twenty species in
western and peninsular India of which only six, namely C. spinosa Linn.,
C. heyneana Wall., C. decidua Edgew., C. grandis Linn. f., C. sepiaria
Linn., and C. zeylanica Linn., are of some medicinal importance.
Recently, in addition to these, C. moonii Wt., practically unknown until
now for its virtues as a medicinal plant, has claimed prominence as a drug
in the treatment of tuberculosis and skin ailments. However, the exis-
tence of contrary views on its efficacy as a drug suggested that there was
considerable confusion on the botanical identity of the material dealt with,
and that a mixture of two or more species of Capparis was involved in the
clinical investigations. Against this background the present investigation
was taken up with particular emphasis on C. moonii and a detailed note on
the correet botanical identity and various aspects of the clinical studies
made has recently been published (Rolia Seshagiri Rao & R. Sundara
Raghavan, 1964, J. Sci. Industr. Res. 23: 53).

During these studies it was observed that considerable ambiguity
éxisted on the botanical identity of two species closely related to Capparis
moonii Wt., namely C. roxburghii DC. and C. cleghornii Dunn. From the
literature it is clear that many earlier workers, namely Graham, Dalzell,
Gibson, Talbot, and Cooke, confused C. moonii with C. roxburghii and
these two species with C. cleghornii. Cooke’s description of C.
roxburghii DC. is probably based on a mixture of C. cleghornii and C.
moonii, and a scrutiny of the few sheets identified as ‘ C. roxburghii DC. ’
in the collections of Cooke and Talbot confirmed that these are
all referable to C. moonii Wt. only. The available herbarium sheets for
these three species ate scanty, and a reference to the various Indian her-
baria revealed that C. cleghornii was not represented in any of the collec-
tions. It may be pointed out that C. cleghornii has not been collected
since 1846 when Cleghorn collected this species at Ballalrayandurga
(Mysore State) for the first time. According to Dr. Jacobs of the
Rijksherbarium, who is at present working on a monograph of

CRITICAL NOTES ON CAPPARIS LINN. FROM PENINSULAR INDIA 413

Capparaceae, both C. cleghornii and C. roxburghii are poorly represented
at Kew, and he could not examine any fruits of C. cleghornii.

The present study is based on extensive field observations during the
last two years supplemented with a critical study of the herbarium speci-
mens available in the Central National Herbarium, Calcutta, Blatter
Herbarium, Bombay, and the regional herbaria of the Botanical Survey
of India at Poona and Coimbatore. Topotypes of C. cleghornii have
been collected from Ballalrayandurga in Mysore State in February-March
1963, and a photograph of the type of this species obtained from Kew
has also been studied with reference to these collections. |

Much of the confusion is due to the incomplete nature of the speci-
mens collected at any one time and the poor preservation of the flowers.
The degree of pubescence, the density of the stipular spines, and the size,
shape, and venation of the leaves are extremely variable characters de-
pending on the age of the plants and whether they are collected
from young twigs or older branches. The flowering shoots are
conspicuously different from the fruiting branches and, coupled with this,
the flowers are ephemeral—the sepals and petals being caducous are not
properly preserved in the herbarium specimens. For instance, the un-
equal petals of C. cleghornii spreading like the wings of a butterfly
(Plate III, Photograph B), the one character that readily differentiates
this species from the other related species in the field, can never be visua-
lized from herbarium specimens alone.

On the basis of our observations it may be stated that these three
species are quite distinct. -C. moonii can be distinguished from the other
two by the larger size of its leaves, flowers, and fruit. C. roxburghii
can be separated from the rest by its globose orange-yellow fruit, thin
pericarp, and smaller seeds. C. cleghornii differs from the allied species
by the fulvous pubescence of the buds, the markedly. unequal petals, the
slender stalks supporting the fruits, and the small globular fruits with
distinct sharp conical projections at the top and containing fewer seeds,
varying from one to four. Except for the flower size, C. cleghornii has
a closer affinity to C. moonii than to C. roxburghii.

The distribution of these three species is equally interesting. Cc:
moonii is very common along the Western Ghats in the moist deciduous
and semi-evergreen forests of Maharashtra, Mysore, Kerala, ‘and the
coastal islands off the west coast, extending to Ceylon.’ - It is;common
from almost sea-level to 800 m. in regions of moderately high rainfall
ranging up to 300 cm. per annum. On the other hand, C. roxburghii

is abundant along the Eastern Ghats in the deciduous forests of Orissa,
_ Andhra, and Madras, extending south to Ceylon. It is confined to lower
elevations and to areas of less rainfall, ranging from 100 to 150 cm. per
annum.. Unlike the other two, C. cleghornii is confined to the eastern
slopes of the Western Ghats in the Mysore State... It: is invariably seen

4i4. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

on the outskirts of evergreen forests in cleared forest areas at an altitude
ranging from 700 to 1400 m. with rainfall varying from 300 to 800 cm,
per annum (Map).

74 76 ve 78 ] a a

BOMBAY gars
| :
; zochendale a is :
Lonavala " ei
ele es ’

yk ea

ga)
2 oO RoE SS tn

‘ ore det
* pv Kavale durga: +..."
Agumbe i
b Ballalrayan durga 7
‘N

. \
Pulicat

. Tf PORE EES
3-74, fSomwarpet Ga aalineers
NBS Mercara Wie
Nae Sd

+CAPPARIS MOONII WT. (———)
®CAPPARIS ROXBURGHII DC. (--------*- )
ACAPPARIS CLEGHORNII DUNN (--—:—-—-—)

=~ ©" Coimbatore

Map showing distribution of Capparis moonii, C. roxburghii, and C. cleghornii
im peninsular India — ‘

A key to the identification of these three species and a detailed des-
cription of these species is given below :

KEY TO FLOWERING SPECIMENS OF Capparis

A. Young shoots fulvous-pubescent, petiole and midrib purplish, nerves 6-8
pairs, lamina 4-7 cm. long, 2°5-3 cm. broad ; flower buds 1:8 cm. across oF |
less, puberulous or glabrous ; petals about equal or very unequal, veins |
diverging from base, with or without a prominent median vein ; stamens
less than 80, spreading, 3-4°5 cm. across

_ CRITICAL NOTES ON CAPPARIS LINN. FROM PENINSULAR INDIA 415

B. Tender leaves pinkish, drying reddish brown, midrib and lamina
puberulous abaxially, later glabrous ; twigs evidently spiny ; flower
buds fulvous-pubescent ; petals very unequal, with veins diverging
from base without a median vein ; stamens 65-80 ; ovules few, less
HRD ck Seis GeR & oc xdiake cine Ae hale HIE @ cys C. cleghornii

BB. Tender leaves green, drying green, glabrous on both surfaces ; twigs
scarcely spiny ; flower buds glabrous; petals about equal, with
veins diverging from base, and with a prominent median vein ;
stamens 45-50; ovules many, more than 30..................

AA. Young shoots glabrous or hoary, petiole and midrib green, nerves 6-16 pairs,
lamina 7-10 cm. long, 3-4°5 cm. broad, flower buds about 2°5 cm. across,
hoary, later glabrescent ; petals about equal, with veins diverging from
base without a prominent median vein ; stamens over 150, spreading 7-10
CHU ENOSSINN ete RTs ahora chew a mn si4 see chia aes Se bea wy tthe C. moonii

KEY TO FRUITING SPECIMENS OF Capparis

A. Mature fruits ovoid or globose, conspicuously umbonate, less than 5 cm.
long, the fruit stalk (of combined gynophore and pedicel) slender, cylin-
drical ; pericarp thin, hard ; ;endocarp scarlet ; seeds few (1-4) ; cotyledons
OER py AL PS Oc CR INOO REE URGE ors AED pS EU Meer at aPC PR ae og C. cleghornii

AA. Mature fruits globose or sub-globose,emarginate or slightly umbonate, more
than 5 cm. long, the fruit stalk (of combined gynophore and pedicel)
quite stout, cylindrical or prominently callose at tip; pericarp thin or

@ woody ; endocarp scarlet or white; seeds many; cotyledons acute
or obtuse

B. Leaf 10-16 cm. long, 4-5:5 cm. broad ; twigs conspicuously spiny ;
few fruits (mostly 1-3) developing from a corymb; fruits reddish
brown, emarginate about 13 cm. long, 10 cm. across, tip of stalk
usually forming a callosity ; pericarp woody, hard ; endocarp white,
later turning scarlet ; seeds 40-45, obovoid, 16-18 mm. long, and
12-15 mm. broad ; embryo curved, cotyledons acute............

BB. Leaf 5-7 cm. long, 2-3 cm. broad, twigs scarcely spiny, 5-7 fruits
developing from a corymb; fruits orange-red, emarginate, apex
umbonate, 5-6 cm. across, tip of stalk never callose ; pericarp thin>
crustaceous ; endocarp creamy, seeds 35-40, obovoid about 10-12
mm. long, 9-10 mm. broad; embryo contorted, cotyledons
MOO OUSC rreee ret eerie ye Bie aia UB iA Nd «She tate: Nensc eS duc C. roxburghii

C. cleghornii Dunn in Gamble, Fl. Madras 1: 46, 1915, nomen nudum ;
Kew Bull. 61, 1916 ; Blatter, Jour. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 31 : 905, 1927.
C. roxburghii DC. Hook. f. & Thom. in Fl. Brit. Ind. 1: 175-76, 1875,
pro parte, excl. syn.

Armed climber ascending 6-8 m., stem about 10 cm. in diameter at
_base, profusely branching ; young shoots flagellate, red-purple tinged,

416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

noticeably fulvous pubescent, older shoots puberulous ; stipular spines
stout, short, recurved, evident throughout. Tender leaves pinkish when
fresh, drying reddish brown, glabrous adaxially, minutely puberulous
abaxially ; leaves in flowering shoots smaller than in fruiting branches,
1:2-2°2 times as long as broad, in fruiting shoots 1°8-2°4 times as long as
broad, about 3°5-10 cm. long, 2-4°5 cm. broad ; petiole reddish, pubes-
cent, 6-10 mm. long, lamina elliptic or obovate, subcoriaceous, glabrous,
both surfaces opaque, base narrowed, apex acute, obtuse or shortly
abruptly bluntly acuminate, occasionally retuse ; venation indistinct ;
midrib dorsally. emphatic, flat or channelled, pinkish, minutely puberu-
lous, ventrally obscure, flat, glabrous ; secondary ribs 4-6(7) pairs, divari-
cate. Inflorescence mostly terminal (occasionally axillary), corymbose,
fulvous pubescent, 6- to 10-flowered, often axillary and solitary in subter-
minal shoots gradually merging into the corymb ; pedicels slender,
tomentose, lowermost pedicel about 3°5 cm. long. Flower buds globose,
6 mm.-1°8 cm. across, densely fulvous pubescent, bracteate, the bracts
spiny. Flowers white, showy, 3°5-4°5 cm. across in full bloom, the
unequal pair of petals spread out like butterfly wings. Sepals four,
subequal, concave, two seriate, imbricate, caducous, densely pubescent
outside, glabrous within, almost similar in size and shape, about 10-12
mm. long, 10 mm. wide. Petals four, white, rosy on ageing, caducous,
puberulous near the base, in two unequal pairs, the outer two larger,
obovate oblong, about 2°2-2°5 cm. long, 1-1:2 cm. broad, the inner petals
obovate, nearly 1°6-1:8 cm. long, 1°2-1°4 cm. broad, prominently veined,
veins diverging from base, dichotomously branched. Stamens approxi-
mately 65-80 spreading from base of gynophore ; filaments slender, 2:2-
2°5 cm. long, white, purple on ageing; anthers introse. Pistil on a
slender gynophore, glabrous ; gynophore 3-3°5 cm. long ; ovary ovoid,
glabrous, purple, about 3-3°5 mm. long, 2 mm. across, unilocular ; style
obsolete ; stigma capitate ; ovules few (8-10 only) on3 parietal placentae,
Fruits baccate, indehiscent, 4-5 developing in a corymb, erect at first,
pendant at maturity on a slender elongated stalk, the jointed peduncle
and gynophore 6-8°5 cm. long, stalk of gynophore gradually thickening
from the base above, never callose at its tip ; fruits ovoid or subglobose ,
3-4 cm. long, 2-3 cm. across, apex prominently umbonate, greenish when
young, dark violet-purplish when ripe ; pericarp thin, hard ; endocarp
pulpy, deep scarlet. Seeds reddish brown, few, 1-4, dorsally compressed
large, obovoid or suborbicular about 1°5-1°8 cm. long, 1°4-1°5 cm. across ;
testa crustaceous ; embryo coiled, cotyledons foliaceous, folded, about
18-20 mm. long, 7-8 mm. wide, elliptic, acute ; radicle thick (Plate I and
Plate III, C 1).

Ver. names (Kanarese) : Malaithottinkai, Baduhugli, Badumungri (as
used in Agumbe area).; Nayikaremanjehannu (as used in Coorg. area).

JOURN. BoMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc. PLATE I

Capparis cleghornii Dunn

_ 1. A fruiting twig; la. A flowering twig; 2a. Outer and inner sepals; 2b. Outer and
inner petals; 2c. Stamen; 2d. Pistil’; 2e. Ovary in cross-section; 3. Seed; 3a. Seed with
testa partly removed showing embryo in situ; 3b. Embryo

JourN. BomMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE II

Capparis moonii Wt.
1. Immature and mature fruits showing variations in shape; la.

Outer and inner sepais ; |
Ib. Outer andinner petals; ic. Pistil and stamen; 1d. Ovary in cross-section; le. Seed;
if. Seed opened to show embryo in situ; 1g. Embryo

Capparis roxburghii DC. |

2. A fruiting twig with an immature fruit cut longitudinally; 2a. Outer and inner sepals ;)
2b. Outer and inner petals; 2c. Pistil and stamen; 2d. Ovary in cross-section; 2e. Seed; |
2f. Seed cut open showing embryo in situ; 2g. Embryo

CRITICAL NOTES ON CAPPARIS LINN. FROM PENINSULAR INDIA 417

Habitat. This species grows on rocky slopes in the outskirts of ever-
green forests mostly in cleared forest areas. It is of considerable interest
to record that this species is very commonly associated with Mezoneuron
cucculatum Wt. & Arn., Wagatea spicata Dalz., Elaeagnus conferta Roxb.,
and Eurya japonica Thunb. in Mysore State.

Flowering and fruiting. Flowers develop usually in early March with
the first summer showers and*continue to first week of April. Anthesis
takes place in the evenings and in the early morning and within a short
time the floral parts fall off one after another leaving only the ovary with
gynophore. Fruiting takes place from April to July and fully mature
fruits are common in August.

Uses. The fruits are eaten in Coorg district.

Specimens examined. Balalroydroog, India (misspelt for Ballala-
rayanadurga, Mysore State), Cleghorn D. 176, 13th April 1846, holotype
(K). The photograph of the type sent from Kew was examined by
the authors and the important characters of the species have been well
made out. (Plate III A). (Subsequently, in 1964, Rolla S. Rao examin-
ed the type at Kew.) |

Mysore STATE :

Chikmagalur district: Ballalrayandurga, A. S. Rao 85349 (BSI) ;
Sundara Raghavan 86819, 86822, 86945, 86970 (BSI).

Coorg district: Mercara, A. S. Rao 74599, 85569, 85641 (BSI) ;
Nalknad Palace, A. S. Rao 85955 (BSI) ; Somwarpet, A. S. Rao 85481
(BSI) ; Talacauvery, A. S. Rao 85748 (BSI).

Hassan district : Bisle-Hassan ghats, Mahajan 34816 (BSI). aa

Shimoga district : Agumbe, Sundara Raghavan 74216, 80554, 80629;
85312, 86341, 90289, 90391, 97237, 97302 (BSI) ; Gubbiga near Yedur,
Sundara Raghavan 80826, 86222, 90153, 97096 (BSI) ; Hulical, Sundara
Raghavan 80925; Kavaledurga, Sundara Raghavan 80943, 96956 (BSD ;
Kimmane, Sundara Raghavan 81085 (BSI).

Distribution. The distribution of this species seems to be very res-
tricted. Though the species was first described in 1916, the data on
distribution are quite meagre as the species was not re-collected for over
a century. A good survey of the region between the Western Ghats and
Bababudan Hills of Mysore State including Coorg area, with an
altitudinal range of 700 to 1400 m. and a rainfall range of 350 to 800 cm.
per annum, clearly shows that C. cleghornii is fairly well distributed in the
evergreen forests of the various districts in this region. This species has
not been recorded beyond this area.

_ Remarks. From the photograph of the type sheet of C. cleghornii
it is clear that two labels, one for Cleghorn D 176 attached to the upper

418 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

part of the sheet and the other for Wight Herb. Kew Distr. no. 68, 1866-
67, attached on the lower part are involved for identical set of collections,
all of them distinctly C. cleghornii Dunn, with tomentose flower buds.
It is also equally clear that Cleghorn and Wight did not collect
the material at the same time and from the same area. Cleghorn did
collect from Ballalrayandurga in Mysore State, but Wight never collected
anywhere in these areas. Accordingly the, reference to Kew Distr. no.
68 attached to these specimens from the Wight Herb. appears to be in
error. Further, a sheet in the Central National Herbarium, Calcutta,
with an identical label ‘ Wight Herb. Kew Distr. no. 68, 1866-67’ and
carrying no other labels, on a detailed scrutiny was found to be C. rox-
burghii DC. (Plate IV, B). Accordingly an enquiry was addressed to the
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, who clarified that ‘Kew Distr. no. 68’
actually referred to C. roxburghii collected by Wight from Pulicat and
Nagari Hills near Madras and under the same number C. cleghornii was
also distributed but no locality was known for it. It would appear that
Dunn, at the time he described C. cleghornii, did not verify this
confusion of two different species distributed under the same Kew Distr.
no. 68. He had also not indicated the mixture of specimens of C.
cleghornii under two different labels in the same sheet though he had
noted at the bottom of the sheet the name of the new species
and cited Wight Herb. Kew Distr. no. 68 also along Cleghorn’s
collection (Cleghorn D. 176) in his description. On the present evidence
it seems likely that an extra label of Wight Kew Distr. no. 68 has been
wrongly attached to the sheet bearing Cleghorn’s specimens in Wight
Herbarium. From the recent studies, the known distribution of C.
cleghornii is limited to the Western Ghats of Mysore State only and does
not extend any further. -

The various characters and citations given by Hooker f. & Thomson
(loc. cit.) under C. roxburghii DC. apply to that species only, but there is
one character, ‘ buds usually tomentose ’, which belongs to C. cleghornii
‘as the buds of C. roxburghii DC. are distinctly glabrous. The characters
given by Cooke under ‘ C. roxburghii DC.’ are applicable to both C.
moonii and C. cleghornii, and in the localities mentioned by Cooke only
C. moonii grows in abundance. Since Cleghorn’s collection of the species
in 1846, the present series of collections made by the Botanical Survey of
India during 1960-63 are the first of their kind.

Capparis roxburghii DC. Prod. 1 : 247-248, 1824 ; Wt. & Arn. Prod.
26, 1834; Wt. Icon. t. 1048, 1846 ; Hook. f. & Thoms. in Fl. Brit. Ind.
1 : 175-76, 1875 pro parte; Trimen, FI. Ceyl. 1: 62, 1893; Dunn in
Fl. Pres. Madras 1: 44-45, 1915 ; Haines, Bot. Bihar & Orissa 1: 32,
1921. C.corymbosa Roxb. Hort. Beng. 93, 1814 nomen nudum; FI,
Ind. 2 : 569 (Carey’s edition 1832) non Lamk.

CRITICAL NOTES ON CAPPARIS LINN. FROM PENINSULAR INDIA 419

Armed scandent shrub about 2-4 m. high, much branched from a
little above base, base 8-10 cm. in diameter ; young shoots flagellate,
fulvous-pubescent, stipular spines few or wanting, older shoots glab-
rous, purplish, spiny ; spines recurved, short, geminate. Leaves in
flowering and fruiting shoots almost of same size, 1°8-2°5 times as long
as broad, 4°5-8 cm. long, 2°5-3°5 cm. broad ; petiole reddish, glabrous,
1:3-2 cm. long; lamina variable in size and shape, ovate or elliptic,
subcoriaceous, glabrous, lustrous adaxially (sometimes dull in her-
barium specimens), opaque abaxially, base cuneate, apex obtuse, acute
or imperceptibly bluntly acuminate ; venation indistinct ; midrib dor-
sally emphatic, purplish, ridged, glabrous, ventrally obscure, sunken,
flat or channelled ; secondary ribs 5-6 pairs, obscure, ascending or
divaricate. Inflorescence terminal, corymbose (sometimes. sub-umbell-
ate), fulvous puberulous, 6- to 12-flowered, occasionally solitary in
subterminal shoots ; pedicels slender, pinkish, minutely puberulous,
later glabrous, the lowermost pedicel upto 3°8 cm. long. Flower buds
globose, 8-16 mm. across, glabrous, bracts caducous. Flowers white:
showy, about 3-4 cm. across, fragrant. Sepals four, concave, two
seriate, imbricate, caducous glabrous, almost similar in size and shape,
about 10 mm. long, 8-9 mm. broad. Petals four, white, caducous,
spreading, puberulous on both surfaces, more so towards the base, the
two pairs of petals almost similar or the outer two slightly larger, obovate
(spathulate in bud) about 11 to 12 mm. long, 10-11 mm. broad, the
inner petals 11 mm. long and 10 mm. broad, prominently veined ; veins
reticulate, diverging from base, the median rib very prominent. Stamens
45-60, spreading from base of gynophore ; filaments slender, 2°5-3 cm.
long, white, purplish on ageing ; anthers introse. Pisti] on a slender
gynophore, glabrous ; gynophore about 3°5-4°5 cm. long; ovary ellip-
soid or ovoid, about 3°5 mm. long, 2°5 mm. across, unilocular ; style
obsolete ; stigma capitate ; ovules numerous on 3 or rarely 4 parietal
placentae. Fruit baccate, indehiscent, 5-7 developing in a corymb,
pendant at maturity, on a much thickened elongated stalk of the jointed
peduncle and gynophore 8-10 cm. long, the gynophore cylindrical, never
callose at its tip. Fruit globose, about 5-6 cm. across, apex prominently
umbonate, greenish at first, turning orange-yellow at maturity, lustrous,
purplish brown on drying ; pericarp thin, crustaceous ; endocarp pulpy,
creamy or white. Seeds embedded in a pulpy viscous endocarp, reddish
brown, 35-40, obovoid, about 1-1:2 cm. long, 1 cm. broad ; testa crus-
taceous ; embryo contorted ; cotyledons foliaceous, coiled, about 12 mm.
long, 8 mm. broad, elliptic obtuse ; radicle stout. (Plate II, 2, and Plate
III, C 2) :

Habitat. This species grows on rocky slopes along dry deciduous
forests usually associated with other species of Capparis and Acacia,

420 - JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

Flowering and fruiting. Flowers appear mostly from March to May
and, sometimes, late Howeumte upto July ; fruiting period from May to
September.

Specimens examined. Wight Herb., Kew Distr. no. 68, 1866-67,
(CAL) loc. Pulicat and Nagari hills, near Madras (based on information
from Kew, see discussion above under C. cleghornii Dunn) ; Wight Herb-
presented in 1871, locality possibly lower Nilgiris (MH). on es

MADRAS STATE: :

Coimbatore district: Anamalais, Cleghorn 1858 (CAL); Kolam-
palayam, Fischer 1846, 1862 (CAL) ; Mankara, K. N. Subramanian 235
(BSI) ; Thekkumalai, Sebastine 198 (MH); Sundara Raghavan 74349
(BSI).

Madura district: Lower Pulneys, Rodriguez 1833 (CAL) ; Vannathi-
parai, Shetty 10273 (MH).

Tirunelveli district. Kadayanallur, Madras herb. no. 15187 (MH).

ORISSA STATE:

Ganjam district: Barkuda, Annandale 1332 (CAL); Baruni hills
near Khurda, Haines 4070 (CAL); Chilka lake, Prain s. n. Cal. herb.
no. 28751 (CAL) ; Rajabari islands, Hooper 39638 (CAL).

CEYLON :

Thwaiteg s. n. Cal. herb. no. 28763 (CAL) ; Thwaites C. P. 1065 Cal,
herb. no. 28764 yee locality not known, anon. Cal. herb. no. 28765
(CAL).

Distribution. This species has a comparatively wider distribution
but is mostly confined to-the deciduous forests of south India along the
lower Anamalais and Pulney Hills of Madras State, extending towards
the north along the Eastern Ghat ranges of Andhra and Orissa States,
and towards the south as far as Ceylon. It has so far not been collec-
ted in any of the high rainfall zones along the Western Ghats. The
record of C. roxburghii DC. in the various floras by Graham, Dalzell
& Gibson, and Nairne as occurring in the forests of western India is
due to misidentification of Capparis moonii Wt. The description as
given by Cooke in his FLORA OF BOMBAY under C. roxburghii DC. is
possibly based on a mixture of two species, i.e. C. moonii Wt. and C.
cleghornii Dunn. )

Remarks. Roxburgh eriginally used the binomial C. corymbosa in
HORT. BENG. and described it later in his FLORA INDICA. As C. corym-
bosa Roxb. was a later homonym for C. corymbosa Lamk., an African
plant, De Candolle proposed the new name C. roxburghii in his PRODRO-
Mus basing it on a specimen in the Banks Herbarium with the manuscript

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CRITICAL NOTES ON CAPPARIS LINN. FROM PENINSULAR INDIA 421

name of C.aguba. Incidentally ‘aguba’ is also the vernacular name
mentioned by Roxburgh under C. corymbosa in his FLORA INDICA.
However, Dr. Jacobs (personal communication) could not locate in the
Banks Herbarium, now in the British Museum, the sheet which consti-
tutes the type. Since the specimen is not now traceable, Plate No. 158
in the Roxburgh ICONES under C. corymbosa, evidently drawn from the
same material as C. aguba of the Banks Herbarium, is now designated
as the type. Accordingly a photograph of the above plate from the set
of Roxburgh ICONES in the Central National Herbarium, Calcutta, is
now reproduced in this paper for the first time (Plate IV, A).

Capparis moonii Wt. Ill. 1 : 35, 1840; Hook. f. & Thoms. in FI.
Brit. Ind. 1: 175, 1875; Trimen, Fl. Ceyl. 1: 62, 1893; Cooke, FI.
Bomb. 1 : 46, 1903 ; Talbot, Forest Flora 1 : 59, 1909 ; Dunn in Gamble,
Fl. Madras 1 : 44-45, 1915 ; Santapau, Fl. Khandala in Rec. Bot. Surv.
India 16: 10, 1953. C. moonii var. tomentosa Blatt. & Hallb. in Blatter,
Jour. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 31 : 905, 1927 ex char. C. roxburghii auct.,
non DC. excl. syn. Graham, Cat. Bomb. Pl. 9, 1839 ; Dalzell & Gibson,
Bombay FI. 9, 1861 ; Nairne, Fl. Pl. W. India 18, 1894 ; Cooke, Fl. Bomb.
1 : 46-47, 1903 pro parte. |

Woody climber ascending over 10 m. ; stem attaining a diameter of
15-20 (25) cm. at base, much branched ; young shoots flagellate, pur-
plish, puberulous, glabrescent later, stipular spines few or even absent.
older shoots glabrous, conspicuously spiny at base, spines stout, sharp,
recurved. Leaves in fruiting specimens larger than in flowering shoots,
2:5-3 times as long as broad, 7-18 cm. long, 3-5°5 cm. broad, petiolate,
petiole 1-1°5 cm. long ; lamina elliptic oblong, coriaceous, glabrous on
both surfaces, lustrous adaxially, opaque abaxially, base rounded, apex
with a twisted acumen, sometimes obtuse ; venation indistinct ; midrib
distinct, channelled ventrally, ridged dorsally ; secondary ribs faint,
6-16 pairs. Inflorescence usually terminal, glabrous, 6- to 12-flowered,
corymbiform, often solitary, axillary, pedicels stout, lowermost pedicel
up to 5°5 cm. Flower buds globose 1-2°5 cm. across. Flowers brac-
teate, showy, 7-10 cm. across when in full bloom, white. Sepals four,
two seriate, imbricate, caducous, hoary at first, later becoming glabrous,
outer sepals slightly smaller than the inner, cup-shaped, about 15 mm.
long, 12 mm. broad, the inner sepals about 18 mm. long, 16 mm. broad.
Petals four, white, spreading, caducous, puberulous on both surfaces,
outer two oblong, slightly narrowed about the middle, truncate and
retuse at apex, about 3-3°5 cm. long, 2-2°5 cm. broad, the inner petals
slightly smaller, narrowed at base, about 2°8-3 cm. long, 2°2-2°5 cm.
broad, prominently veined, the veins spreading from base and dicho-
tomously branched. Stamens numerous, approximately 150-170, spread-
ing from base of gynophore, filaments slender, 5°5-7 cm. long, white to

422 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

scarlet on ageing ; anthers basifixed, introse. Pistil on a slender gyno-
phore, 6-8 cm. long ; ovary glabrous, ovoid about 5°5 mm. long, 3 mm.
broad, green purplish tinged, unilocular ; style obsolete ; stigma sessile,
capitate ; ovules numerous on 3 or occasionally 4 parietal placentae.
Fruits baccate, indehiscent, mostly one to three developing in a corymb,
apparently solitary, pendant from a conspicuous stout elongated stalk,
the jointed peduncle and gynophore 12-16 cm. long, tip of the stalk
usually callose ; fruits globose or subglobose, becoming narrowly cylin-
drical towards the base, about 13 cm. by 10 cm., apex rounded or um-
bonate, immature fruits similar in shape, occasionally ellipsoid, greenish
at first, turning reddish brown at maturity ; pericarp at first thin, later
becoming woody and much thickened ; endocarp Viscous, pulpy, white
or creamy at first, turning deep scarlet on exposure. Seeds embedded
in the endocarp, reddish brown, 40-45, dorsally compressed, large:
obovoid, about 1°6-1°8 cm. long, 1:2-1°5 cm. broad ; testa crustaceous ;
embryo curled ; cotyledons foliaceous, curved and folded, about 20 cm.
long, 10-12 mm. broad, ovate, acuminate ; radicle stout. (Plate II,1
and Plate III, C 3).

Vern. names. Wagati, Poorwi (Marathi), Luthikai (Konkani).

Habitat. The species grows rather abundantly on laterite soil along
rocky slopes mostly in the moist deciduous forests of the lower parts of
the Western Ghats and also in the semi-evergreen forests along the upper
slopes of the ghat region. The species has a good adaptability as to
grow along rocky coastal areas including in a few islands off the west
coast. It is normally bushy on exposed hillocks, but it assumes a scan-
dent habit if proper support is available and ascends over 10 m. It is
commonly associated with other species of Capparis such as C. zeylanica
Linn. and C.heyneana Wall. besides other species like Pittosporum
floribundum Wt, & Arn., Terminalia crenulata Roth, Calycopteris flori-
bunda Lamk., Cylista scariosa Roxb., and Carissa congesta Wt.

Flowering and fruiting. Flowers appear usually from February to
May but there is another short flowering period from October to Decem-
ber. Anthesis is mostly in the evenings, floral parts falling off the next
day leaving the gynoecium. In N. Kanara district, along the coastal
areas this species has two peak flowering seasons, once in October and
the other in January-February. Fruiting material is to some extent
available in December but is abundant from March onwards. At
Khandala maximum frequency of flowering is in March-April and fruits
persist till late July.

Uses. Talbot records that the leaves and bark are used in curries.

- Field observations and local inquiries do not support that the fruits are
utilized as vegetable. Of late the fruits are reported to be efficaceous in

CRITICAL NOTES ON CAPPARIS LINN. FROM PENINSULAR INDIA 423

the treatment of tuberculosis and skin ailments but investigations so
far carried out on these aspects have yielded negative results only.

Specimens examined.

MAHARASHTRA STATE :

Poona district: Khandala-Lonawala, Blatter 18140, 27948 (BLAT) ;
Chibber s. n. June, 1909 (BSI) ; Cooke s. n. Jan. 1892 (BSI) ; Gammie
16305 ; 16124; s.n., Feb., 1891 ; s. n., Feb., 1907 (BSI) ; Merchant 853
(BLAT) ; Santapau 41/5 ; 20 ; 23 ; 24 ; 1656 ; 3317; 3318 ; 8601 ; 10712 ;
10713 ; 12265; 15699; 18140 (BLAT); Sundara Raghavan 79648 ;
79649 ; 87101 (BSI).

Ratnagiri district: Malwan, Santapau 41/4 (BLAT),; anon. s. n.,
Blatt. Herb. no. 27560 (BLAT) ; anon. s. n. Cal. herb. no. 28744 (CAL).

Mysore STATE:

Coorg district ; Makut (?), Arora 32410 (BSI).

N. Kanara district: Amboli, Gammie 15049 (BSI) ; Ankola Ghats,
Talbot 927 (BSI) ; Bhatkal, Krishnamurthy s. n. B.S.I. Herb., No. 62365
(BSI) ; Sundara Raghavan 74341 ; 79506 (BSI); Kumpta, Anu Pharma
s.n. B.S.I. Herb. No. 36434 ; Sundara Raghavan 79408 ; 79447 ; 79458
(BSI).

GOA: .
St. George Islands, A. O. Hume s. n. Cal. herb,, no. 28742 (CAL).

KERALA STATE :
Kottayam district; Udumbanchola, Meebold. 719/13112 (CAL) ;
Anamalais, Beddome 37 (CAL).

Distribution. This species is widely distributed all along the western
coast of India including some of the rocky islands near the shore and
along the upper slopes of Western Ghats to 900 m. with an annual rain-
fall of 250 to 450 cm., covering the States of Maharashtra, Mysore,
Goa, and Kerala. It further extends south to Ceylon. It has not so
far been recorded from the crest of the Western Ghats or from the
eastern slopes of the Western Ghats facing the Deccan plateau where
C. cleghornii grows very well.

Remarks. From the extensive field observations, it is clear that
C. moonii is the most common species along the Western Ghats especially
in Maharashtra and N. Kanara district in Mysore State. The descrip-
tions of ‘ C. roxburghii DC.’ as given by Graham, Nairne, Dalzell &
Gibson are all applicable to C. moonii only. Though Cooke records
C. moonii separately in his FLORA OF BOMBAY PRESIDENCY, he mixes up
the characters of C. moonii and C. cleghornii in his description of ‘ C.

424 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

roxburghii’, confusing the young fruits of C. moonii with several seeds
as belonging to ‘ C. roxburghii’, and this seems to be responsible for the
record of C. roxburghii by Cooke in areas where mostly C. moonii and
to some extent C. cleghornii only occur.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to express their thanks to Sir George Taylor,
Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, for providing the type photo-
graph of Capparis cleghornii Dunn and relevant data on Kew Distr.
no. 68; to Dr. M. Jacobs, Ryksherbarium, for comments on Capparis
cleghornii ; and to Prof. P. V. Bole, St. Xavier’s College, Bombay, for
facilities to work in the Blatter Herbarium.

SYNOPSIS

Considerable confusion exists regarding the botanical identity and
treatment of the three closely related species Capparis moonii Wt., C.
roxburghii DC., and C. cleghornii Dunn in the floras pertaining to penin-
sular India.: Graham, Dalzell & Gibson, and Nairne seem to have
confused C. roxburghii DC. with C. moonii Wt. Scrutiny of the speci-
mens in Cooke’s and Talbot’s collections in the light of the description
given by Cooke shows that Cooke based his description of ‘ C: rox-
burghii’ on a mixture of specimens of C.-moonii Wt. and C. cleghornii
Dunn. As regards C. cleghornii Dunn, the confusion is due to the
original scanty description and to paucity of material, this species not
having been collected again since the Cleghorn collections from Ballal-
rayandurga (Chikmagalur District, Mysore State) in 1846. Exténsive
field observations during the last two years and a scrutiny of herbarium
specimens in the various Indian herbaria have established that these
species are quite distinct with their distribution clearly marked out.
Capparis cleghornii Dunn has been collected from the type locality and
is known to be confined to the Western Ghats of Mysore State along
the outskirts of evergreen forests. A detailed description of the three
species with a key is given, and certain interesting observations on the
type sheet studied at Kew are elaborated in this paper.

The nidification of some common
Indian birds—Part 2

B. S. LAMBA
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta

[Continued from Vol. 60 (1): 133].

2. THE JUNGLE Crow (Corvus macrorhynchos WAGLER)'

Previous Work. Very little is known about the breeding habits of
the Jungle Crow. Hume (1873: 411-413) was perhaps the first orni-
thologist to collate the data available on the subject, but many interest-
ing aspects were left untouched. Many workers have written on the
subject since then (Butler 1875; Davidson & Wenden 1878 ; Cripps
1878 ; Scully 1879 ; Vidal 1880; Reid 1881 ; Swinhoe & Barnes 1885 ;
Barnes 1886 ; Davidson 1882 ; Taylor 1887 ; Hume 1889 ; Munn 1894;
Jesse 1902 ; Ferguson 1903-4; La-Touche 1906; Dewar 1909, 1929 ;
Whistler 1928 ; Baker & Inglis 1930; Inglis 1931-34; Ali & Abdulali
1937; Ali 1946, 1953; Baker 1917, 1922, 1932; Aitken 1947; Bates
& Lowther 1952, to cite a few), but it is still far from exhausted. _

_ Breeding season. The breeding season of the Jungle Crow differs in
different parts of India. Hume (1873: 411 ; 1889: 4) writing about the
breeding season of the Jungle Crow stated : ‘March to May is, I con-
sider, the normal breeding-season ; in the plains the majority lay in
April, rarely later, and in the hills in May ; but in the plains a few birds
lay also in February.’ According to Whistler (1928: 4) the various
races of Jungle Crow throughout India agree for the most part in laying
their eggs from.March to May, but in the plains a few nests will be found
with eggs as early as the middle of December. Baker (1932: 7-9) writ-
ing on the subject stated : ‘The Northern Indian race breeds during
December and January in Bengal and I have myself taken eggs as early
as the 27th November in Eastern Bengal. In Bihar a few birds breed
as early as the second week in January, but over the rest of its range
across India as far west as the United Provinces and as far south as the
Central Provinces the normal breeding -season seems to be late March
to iy May, most eggs being laid in April before the 20th. of

———

1 This section is based almost entirely on observations BE when I was working
with the Virus Research Centre, Poona. |
[14]

436 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

that month.... The breeding season of the Jungle Crow throughout
southern India seems to be March, April and May. Major C. E.
Williams took for me a fine series of their eggs between 9th of March
and 3rd of May ; Bourdillon and others took eggs from 27th February
to 20th May in Travancore. Davidson and Miss Cockburn give April
and May as the breeding months in the Nilgiris, though Darling tooka
clutch of six eggs at Ooty as early asthe 12th of February. In theSouth
of the Bombay Presidency most eggs are laid in April and March,’
Ali (1946 : 5) on the other hand stated : ‘ The normal breeding season in
Peninsular India is between December and March or April ; North of
Ganges and in Assam and Burma it is usually later, between March and
May.’

In and around Vellore (N. Arcot, Madras) where the present study
was made the breeding season in 1956 lasted from early March to early
June. Most eggs were found in April-May and most young in May-
June.

Mating. By the beginning of March small flocks of Jungle Crow
which habitually feed in cultivated fields, scrub jungle, and often in
and around villages in company with House Crows tend to disintegrate
into pairs. Partners are sought out and courted. The pair keep fairly
close together. The Jungle Crow, like the House Crow, appears to be
rather discreet about the display of connubial affection and sexual inter-
course. In spite of its being one of the common birds of India very few
people observe the Jungle Crow copulating. Copulation usually takes
place in trees, sometimes on house tops or on the ground, and occasion: |
ally in the middle of a road (Berriff 1927). The presence of others of
the species while the copulation is in progress is ignored nonchalantly,
The sexual union may or may not be preceded by a mild head-tickling.
The copulation is done in the usual bird fashion, very much like that
of the House Crow. No particular timings are observed for the act
and the conjugation is very frequent when the nest is under construction.

Nest building. Unlike the House Crow, the Jungle Crow seems to
be rather selective about the site of the nest. Normally a fork high
up in a.-tall tree is selected on the outskirts of, or near, human habita-
tion, in well-wooded open land, cultivation, or waste ground. In locali.
ties where tall trees are wanting or have already been occupied by others
of the species smaller trees are made use of. It does not as a rule build
its nest in buildings. Only once has a nest on the top of an old building
been recorded (Baker 1932: 8), but there too it built in a small bunch
of Ficus growing on the roof. Usually, no other sites are selected, but —
I saw one nest of the Jungle Crow in the compound of the Institute of
Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Ranipet, Madras, which was placed in
a loop made of two insulated electric mains. ~ :

[15]

NIDIFICATION OF SOME COMMON INDIAN BIRDS—PART 2. 427

It is difficult to say which partner has the greater say in selecting the
site, perhaps the female. But once the site is selected both partners
take a keen interest in building the nest. Dry twigs and sticks are picked
up from under the trees and hedges around the field and farm. If fallen
sticks are not readily available, twigs from trees and sticks from fences
and hedges are wrenched off. Wires are also occasionally made use of.
Both the birds go hunting for building material but separately. The
female appears to do the bulk of the construction work. The male
takes part in actual construction to the extent of arranging the twigs he
has brought. If the female happens to be at work on the nest when the
male arrives with a twig, he prefers to pass it on to her and go away in
search of more. The female may at times rearrange the stick the male
has added in her absence. As the twigs are fairly thick she often finds
it hard to adjust or bend a refractory stick and may take a few minutes
to arrange it to her satisfaction. During construction the birds do not
seem to be in much of a hurry. There are long intervals between spurts
of building activity.

In the earlier stages of construction the nest has the appearance
of a bunch of sticks put loosely in a fork their ends projecting in all
directions. As more sticks are added and arranged it gradually acquires
the shape of a somewhat rounded platform, loosely attached to one or
both the limbs of the fork with intertwining twigs and sticks. Further
sticks are added on the periphery and the sides, moulding it finally to a
massive, broad, cup-shaped structure 35 to 45 cm. in diameter and 12
to 15 cm. deep, with walls 10 to 12 cm. thick. The inner cavity is lined
with coconut fibre, grasses, grassroots, palm fibre and bark, and human,
horse, or other animal hairs which are sometimes pulled off the backs
of live animals or skins laid out for drying (Hutton 1848: 9). The
finished inner cavity is about 15 to 18 cm. across and 10 to 14 cm, deep.
It usually takes a pair about seven to twelve days to construct a nest:
complete with lining: :

Territory. There appear to be no territorial troubles. Others of
- the species are never attacked if and when they visit the nesting tree.
Although highly gregarious otherwise, while breeding the Jungle Crow
Certainly appears to respect the privacy of others of the clan and two pairs
will never be found nesting in the same tree. All other birds, as long
as they are not bitds of prey, are welcome to use the nesting tree in any
way they think fit. Birds of prey are always chased and driven off.
Other birds including the House Crow seem to be afraid of the Jungle
Crow and do not normally dare to come near its nest. Once I saw a
female koel resting in the shade of a large Banyan tree in which the
nest of a Jungle Crow was located. One of the parents was sitting in
the nest incubating and did not pay any attention to the koel.

4 [16]

428 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

Laying and clutch size. Egg-laying starts with the completion of the
nest and sometimes even before the lining is complete. Three to five
eggs are generally laid, at intervals of twenty-four to forty-eight hours

(Table II).
TABLE IT

LAYING PATTERN AND CLUTCH SIZE OF JUNGLE Crow (Corvus macrorhynchos)

earn aera eeer reese reece eeeeeeeeeceaseeeeerenee erasers ce ce eT SL ZT Se a PT Ss EES
Ist egg 2ndegg 3rdegg 4thegg 5thegg Total No.

Nest No. laid on laid on laid on laid on laid on laid
1 24/iv 25/iv 26/iv 28 /iv — 4
2 17/iv 18/iv 20/iv oa ae 3
3 17/iv 18 /iv 19/iv 20/iv — 4
4 28 / iv 30/iv I/v 2/V —= 4
5 27/iv 28 /iv 29 /iv I/v — 4
6 b 3/v - 4/v 6/Vv — — 3
7 24/iv 25/iv 26/iVv 27/1V 28/iv 4
8 i, 8/V 9/v 10/ v 11/v — 4
9 ' 8/v 9/v 10/ v 11/v — aie

10 — 27/iv 28/iv 29/iv 30/iv l/v 5
11 27 /iv 28/iv 29/iv — — 3
12 27/iv 28/iv 29/iv 30/iv — 4

Occasionally six (Darling, cited by Hume 1889: 7) and rarely two
(Dewar 1909 : 238-39) are also laid. Baker (1932: 8) is of the opinion
that ‘ cases in which two eggs have been reported as incubated are prob-
ably incomplete clutches’. Recent researches, however, indicate. that
a number of environmental factors are responsible for the determination
of clutch size in an indeterminate layer like this crow. It will not per-
haps bé entirely irrelevant to mention here some of the important factors
in brief, although they have not been directly observed i in connection with
the present work :

1. Availability of food in the brseaana area :

This is perhaps the most important factor soverning clutch size.
Abundance of food in the locality appears to induce birds to lay bigger
clutches than normal. In a rodent plague the clutch of birds living on
them may be double the usual figure or even greater, a phenomenon
recorded from the arctic, temperate, and tropical regions (Schneider
1928 ; Elton 1942 ; Moreau 1944). Even the quality of the food avail-
able sometimes affects clutch size (Kluijver 1933, cited ae Lack peti

2. Climatic conditions :

Climatic conditions varying annually appear to influence the clutch
size (Jourdain & Witherby 1918 ; Lack 1947b ; Parkhurst & Lack 1946 ;
Walkinshaw 1944). Even a dias of season may affect clutch size os
double brooders (Stresemann 1928; Kendeigh 1941 ; Lack 1947a).

[17]

NIDIFICATION OF SOME COMMON INDIAN BIRDS—PART 2. 429

3. The age of the bird : be

First year birds lay smaller clutches than older individuals (Ruiter
1941 ; Kluijver 1933 ; Wissel 1927). Very old individuals’ also tend to
have as clutches a ourdain 1925). ©

4. Individual peculiarities :

Sometimes it is observed that an individual bird which laid an un-
usually large or an unusually small clutch on one occasion tends to do
the same on other occasions (Lack 1947a).

Regarding the determination of the average clutch size, Lack (1947a :
315-319) writes: ‘I believe that, in nidicolous species, the average
clutch size is ultimately determined by the average maximum number
of young which the parents can successfully raise in the region and at
the season in question.’ He further states : ‘ The limitation of clutch
size must be regarded not as a negative, the inability to produce more
eggs, but as a positive act, the cessation of laying’. He also suggests
that, in indeterminate layers, laying: presumably ceases in response to
either visual or tactile stimuli from the nest.

The eggs are broad ovals somewhat compressed towards one end.
The shell is compact, fine, and slightly glossy. The ground colour is
usually bluish green, olive-green, sometimes almost blue (Baker 1932 :
8), or olive or stone colour (Dewar 1929: 26). They are blotched,
streaked, smeared, freckled with brown or pale faded’ purple. The
size, shape, ground colour, and the design, intensity, and shade of the
markings varies a good deal in eggs from different clutches and, some-
times, in the various eggs of the same clutch. The average of thirty-
seven eggs measured was 30.3 x 42.1 mm.

The Jungle Crow does not appear to be suspicious of or bear any
malice towards the Koel (Eudynamis scolopaceus). 1 did not come
across a koel’s egg in any of the nests, possibly because extremely few
nests of this species with eggs are left till June; when the majority of
the koel eggs were met with in House Crows’ nests. Instances are,
however, on record (Ali & Abdulali 1937: 91; _SJerdon 1877: : 296). of
koel parasitising the brood of this species. _

Incubation. The female starts sitting as soon as the first egg is laid
in the nest. Incubation for the most part is done by the female. The
male relieves her at intervals. The birds are very close sitters and leave
the nest unattended only in the hottest part of the day, when one or
both the birds mount guard on the nest sitting in a shady spot near-by.
Unlike the House Crow the bird sitting in the nest does not abandon
the nest as soon as someone starts climbing the nesting tree. The in-
cubating bird keeps sitting in the nest till the climber is very close. After
leaving the nest they make menacing threats of attacking the human

HeES: |

430 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

intruder but seldom strike. The Jungle Crow does not appear to take
much notice of a slight change in the appearance of the contents of the
nest. I have painted its eggs scarlet with transparent water colours by
ones and twos in a clutch in several cases, and in one case all the five,
without affecting the composure of the owners in the least. They neither
deserted the nest nor made any attempt to destroy or get rid of the
painted eggs. They devoured a Paddy Bird (Ardeola grayii) egg placed
in an empty nest, but accepted and incubated one when substituted for
one of their own in a clutch of four.

Period of incubation. In nine cases out of twelve the first fledgling
hatched out after eighteen days of the laying of the first egg, in one case
in seventeen, and in another in nineteen days (Table III).

TABLE III

PERIOD OF INCUBATION OF JUNGLE Crow (Corvus macrorhynchos)

Nest No. Ist egg laid on Ist fledgling hatched Period of incuba- |

on tion in days

1 24/iv 12/v 18
2 17/iv 5/v 18
3 17/iv 5/v 18
4 28/iv 16/v 18
5 27/iv 16/v 19
6 3/v 21/v 18
7 24/iv 12/v 18
8 8/v 26/v 18
9 8/v 25/v 17
10 27/iv 15/5 18
11 27/iv did not hatch
12 29/iv 17/v 18

One clutch that did not hatch out was incubated for twenty-nine
days before it was finally deserted.

The young in the nest. The young hatch out one after the other,
at intervals of twenty-four to forty-eight hours. The newly hatched
young are entirely devoid of nestling down. They are unable to stand
up and lie helplessly on their delicate and almost transparent abdomens.
The body is light flesh-coloured. The eyes are closed. Beak and claws
are soft and fleshy, and are of the same colour as the rest of the body.
The neossoptiles make their first appearance some time between forty-
eight to seventy-two hours after hatching. They consist of prepennae
and are duly replaced by regular contour feathers (teléoptiles). The
remiges and rectrices appear in the second week in the form of gramo-
phone-needle-like structures at first, and then at the needle points appear
tufts of hair-like feathers (barbs). At this stage, with elongated stem

Per |

NIDIFICATION OF SOME COMMON INDIAN BIRDS—PART 2 431

and tufts of hair at the distal end, they resemble miniature artists’
brushes arranged in rows of uneven sizes. The tuft gradually elongates
into rachis and vane, while the stem ultimately forms the calamus. By
the end of the fourth week the young are fully fledged. The colour of
the fully fledged young is similar to that of the adult bird.

Both the parents feed the young. The young are unable to accept
food till they are twenty-four to forty-eight hours old. In the earlier
stages the food hunting trips of the parents are arranged in such a way
that one or the other of them is always available to guard or warn the
nestlings against predators and intruders.

All the young that hatch out do not live to leave’ the nest (Table IV).
The majority of deaths occur in the first fortnight and mainly for want
of food. Rarely is death due to a chance fall or some marauder’s attack.

TABLE IV

NESTING SUCCESS

Nest No. No. of eggs Incubation period Total Fledglings that
laid in days hatch survived
1 4 18 4 3
2 3 18 3 3
3 4 18 4 3
4 4 18 4 Pd
5 4 19 4 4
6 3 18 2 2
7 5 18 4 ae:
8 4 18 3 3
9 4 17 3 3
10 5 18 4 3
11 3 19 did not hatch
12 4 18 3 2
38 31
Total 47 = 66%

The parent birds usually cannot meet the full demand of a clutch of
five and sometimes even four nestlings ; unless of course there is an
abundance of food in the locality. The parents seem to exercise no dis-
crimination whatsoever in feeding them, and stuff the food in the gaping
mouth of one of them, presumably the nearest, until the supply is ex-
hausted or the one being fed refuses to swallow any more. This is
repeated at every visit and the young which are not fed until their stronger
brethren have received all they can take go to the wall in the struggle
for existence in the nest. The dead are thrown out without the slightest
concern on the part of the parents. The nestlings who survive remain
in the nest for three to four weeks. A three- to four-week old nestling
is fully fledged and can fly short distances, if forced to do so. Generally
[20]

432 - JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

before leaving the nest they stay around in the branches of the nesting
tree where they are fed by the parents. Even after leaving the nest
they stick close to the parents, usually the mother, for a few weeks and
‘follow her wherever she goes. As soon as she picks up a little bit of
food the demand for. it by the young starts. Generally the mother
transfers the morsel to the young.

Nesting success. Nesting success in the Jungle Crow depends on a
number of factors, the most important ones being the amount of food
available for the young at nestling stage, fertility of the eggs laid, and
interference by predators. In ‘the present study a total of forty-seven
eggs were laid in twelve nests. A total of thirty-one fledglings survived
ten IY). It eu works out to sixty-six per-cent.

REFERENCES

AITKEN, E. H. (1947): The Common
Birds of India. 3rd ed. Thacker & Co.
Ltd., Bombay.

Aut, S. (1946): The Book of Indian
Birds. 4th ed. Bombay Natural History
Society, Bombay.

———— (1953): Birds of Travancore
and Cochin. Oxford University Press.

, & ABDULALI, H. (1937): The

Birds of Bombay and Salsette. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 39 : 91-103.

Baker, E. C. S. (1917) : On the nidifi-

cation of some Indian Falconidae. Jbis.

(10) 5 : 354-355.

———— (1922): The Fauna of British -
India including Ceylon and Burma. Birds .

1. Taylor and Francis, London.
(1932):
Birds of the Indian Empire 1.
and Francis, London.

-BAKER, H. R., & INGLIS, C. M. (1930):
The Birds of Southern India. Govern-
ment Press, Madras.

BARNES, “SL E. (1886) : Notes on the
Birds nesting in Rajpootana. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 1 : 38-62.

BATES, R.S. P., & LowTHer, E. H.N.
(1952) : Breeding Birds of Kashmir.
Oxford University Press, London.

BERRIFF, A. H. (1927) : Mating of the

Jungle Crow (Corvus. coronoides inter-
medius). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 32:
DN ies

BUTLER, Capt. A. E. (1875) : Notes on
the Avifauna of Mount Aboo and Nor-
thern Guzerat. Stray Feathers 3: 437-

500. :
Cripps, J. R. (1878): First list of
Birds of Furreedpur, Eastern Bengal.
ibid. 7 : 239-315.
.Davipson, J. (1882): Rough list of
the Birds of Western Khardssl

10 : 279-327.
[21]

Thacker

Lemmings.

_Nidification of the,
Taylor

family of our area.

ibid. —

_DaAvipson, J. (1898): A short trip to
Kashmir. Jbis (7) 4: 1-42.

Davipson, C. S., & WENDEN, C. E.
(1878): A contribution to the Avifauna
of Deccan. Stray Feathers 7: 68-95.

Dewar, D. (1909): Birds of the
Plains. John Lane, London.

(1929) : Indian Birds’ Nests.
Spink and Co., Calcutta,
Bombay.

ELTON, C. (1942): Voles, Mice and
Oxford.

FERGUSON, H. S. (1903-4) : The Birds
of Travancore with notes on their nidi-
fication by Bourdillon, T. F. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 15: 249-264.

GILL, E. H. N. (1922): A. deserip-

_tion of Nests and Eggs of the Common

Birds occurring in the plains of United
Provinces. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
28 : 1069-74.

Hume, A. O. (1873): Nests and Eggs
of Indian Birds. Rough draft. Superin-
tendent of Government Printing,

Calcutta.

———— (1889): Nests and Eggs of
Indian Birds. 2nd ed. R. H. Porter,
London.

Hutton, T. (1848):
nidification. of Indian Birds.
Soc. Beng. 17 (2): 3-13.

_ INGLIs, C. M. (1931-34): The Crow
J. Darjeeling nat.

Notes on the
J. Asiat.

Hist. Soc. 6-8 : 48-54.

JERDON, T. C. (1877): The Birds of
India? PP: oS. D’Rozario)., & 7 Coz
Calcutta.

Jesse, W. (1902): On the Birds of

‘Lucknow. Ibis (8) 2: 470-490.
. . JOURDAIN, F. C. R. (1925): A study
on parasitism in the Cuckoos.

Proc.
zool. Soc. Lond.1 : 639-667.

NIDIFICATION OF SOME COMMON INDIAN BIRDS—PART 2 433

JoURDAIN, F. C. R. & WITHERBY, H. F.
(1918) : The effect of winter of 1916-1917
on our resident birds. Brit. Birds
12: 26-35.

KENDEIGH, S. C. (1941): Length of
the day and energy requirement for gonad
development and egg laying in birds.
Ecology 22 : 237-248.

KLUuIVER, H. N. (1933):
Lack, D. (1947a).

Lack, D. (1947a): The significance of
clutch size. Jbis 89 : 302-352.

(1947b): The significance
of clutch size in the Partridge. J. Animal
Ecol. 16: 19-25.

La ToucHe, J. D. D. (1906): Field
notes on the birds of Chinkiang. Ibis
(8) 6 : 427-450.

MorkEAu, R. E. (1944) : Clutch size:
a comparative study with special re-
ference to African Birds. Ibis 86 : 286-
347.

Munn, P. W. (1894): On ie Birds
of Calcutta District. /bis (6) 6: 39-77.

OaTEs, E. W. (1884) : Fauna of British
India including Ceylon and Burma.
Birds 1. Taylor and Francis, London.

ParKHoursT, R., & Lack, D. (1946):
The clutch size of the Yellowhammer.
Brit. Birds 39 : 358-364.

PycrarT, W. P. (Not given): The in-
fancy of animals: 150-151. Hutchinson
& Co., London.

——— (1929): Feather.
Paedia Britannica. 14th Ed. 9:

Rew, G. (1881): The Birds

cited by

Encyclo-
128-131.
of

* Not seen in original.

Lucknow Civil Division. Stray Feathers
10 : 1-88.

Ruiter, C.J.S. (1941) : Waarnenringen
omtrent de levenswigze Van de Gerkra-
agde Roodstaart. Phoenicurus ph. phoeni-
curus (Linn.). Ardea 29: 108.

SCHNEIDER, B. & W. (1928): Beitrage

zur Biologie .der Schleicreule. J. f.
Ornith. 76 : 412-419.

SCULLY, J. (1879): A. contribution
to the ornithology of Nepal. Stray
Feathers 8 : 204-366.

STRESEMANN, E. (1928): Handbuch

der Zoologie. 7 (2) Bogen 22 bis 27.
Walter De Gruyter and Co., Berlin.

SWINHOE, C., & BARNES, H. (1885):
On the Birds of Central India. Jbis
(5) 3: 124-138.

TAYLOR, C. J. W. (1887): A tentative
list of the Birds of Manzeerabad, Mysore.
Stray Feathers 10 : 454-467.

VIDAL, G. W. (1880) : First list of the
Birds of South Konkan. ibid. 9: 1-96.

VAN TYNE, J., & BERGER, A. J. (1959):
Fundamentals of Ornithology. John
Wiley & Sons Inc., New York.

* WALKINSHAW L. H. (1944): The
Eastern Chipping Sparrow in Michigan.
Wilson Bull. Ann Arbor 56: 196-205.

WHISTLER, H. (1928): Popular Hand-
book of Indian Birds. Gurney and
Jackson, London.

WISSEL, C. V. (1927): Fasanenzucht
als Erwerbsquelle und _ Liebhaberei.
Neudamm (Neumann).

Cited by Lack, D. (1947a)

[ 22 ]

On Caulerpa fastigiata Mont. var.
fastigiata in India

FRANCESCA THIVY AND V. VISALAKSHMI
Central Salt & Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar

(With 21 figures on two plates)

INTRODUCTION

From the shores of Bombay City, Boergesen reported Caulerpa fas-
tigiata Mont. var. fastigiata. It is being reported, now, for the first
time from Gujarat, where its forma minor Web. v. Bosse, which is a new
find for India, and its forma delicatula Thivy & Visal. forma nova also
occur. A key and descriptions with reference to the only variety of
C. fastigiata Mont., known to occur in India, and to the forms of this
variety are given ae

Key To Caulerpa fastigiata Mont. var. fastigiata AND ITS FORMS

1. Plants up to 3 cm. high; ultimate short branchlets distinctly

ATCUALE. 2. Spc eo eee OGL eee ee Pere 2
1. Plants 3-9 cm. high; ultimate short branchlets not distinctly
arcuate, 112-250 im: diamefer...3...002) 2 var. fastigiata

2. Plants 0°3-1°5 cm. high; arcuate assimilators 220-300 in
diameter at the upper end, thick, not highly arched ; stolons
266-392 4-1 “diameter: 2. ee ee forma minor

2. Plants 3 cm. high ; arcuate assimilators 180-240 y in diameter at
the upper end, slender, highly arched ; stolons 168-252 yp in
diameter :2)45 Ao ee oe ee forma delicatula

Caulerpa fastigiata Mont. var. fastigiata

C. fastigiata Mont., Hist. Phys. de l’ile de Cuba, p. 19, t. 2, f. a
1838 ; Web. v. Bosse in Ann. J. bot. Buitenz. 15 : 262, 1898 & Siboga
Expedit. 59a : 96, 1913; Boergesen in Dansk. Bot. Arkiv 1(4) : 118,
f. 93, 1913 ; idem in J. Indian bot. Soc. 11(1) : 55, 1932, et in Danske
Vidensk. Selskab. Biol. Med. 12(2) : 29, 1935 ; Okamura, Ic. Jap. Alg.
4:14, t. 154, ff. 9-13, 1916; Gilbert in Repr. Pap. Mich, Acad, Sci,

ON CAULERPA FASTIGIATA MONT. VAR. FASTIGIATA IN INDIA 435

Arts, Lett. 27 : 9, 1942 ; Dawson in Pac. Sci. 8(4) : 392, f. 9g, 1954;
Taylor in Univ. Michigan Stud. Sci. Ser, 21 : 136, t. 10, f. 12, 1960.

(Plate I, figs. 1-5 ; Plate II, figs. 10-13)

Plants 3-9 cm. high, forming mat-like colonies, filiform, with bran-
ched stolon bearing erect axes at intervals of 0°1-1'2 cm., green includ-
ing stolon, at times chlorotic in the basal region ; stolon 215-400 y dia-
meter, with free tips up to 3 cm. long, with stratified wall 5:2-7°8 j dia-
meter, having numerous transverse trabeculae 1°5-4°0 y thick and con-
torted in the centre of the stolon, with a few longitudinal trabeculae of
1°3 » thickness, with round to pyriform starch grains of 2°0-5°0 » dia-
meter and to 7°8 « long or rarely 10°4 » long.

Primary erect axes branched to first or second degree and sometimes
to 5th degree, cylindrical throughout, 112-275 « diameter, often sub-
clavate at tips, slightly thicker at basal region, with obtuse or some-
times faintly acute tips, with cell wall 1:°5-3°0 « diam., having numerous
transverse trabeculae 0°75-2'5 p» thick, with a few longitudinal trabe-
culae 1:3 w diam. with round to pyriform starch grains up to 5:2 » dia-
meter, and up to 6:0 » long. Branching of erect axes spiral or dicho-
tomous and in the upper part in addition opposite or subwhorled.
Branchlets when short 2°5-4°(0 mm. in length, when longer up to 6.0
cm., usually both kinds found intermixed from below upwards. Rhizoids
near origin 45-144 » diameter, with wall 5:2-7°8 yw thick, simple, dicho-
tomous or alternately branched, tapering to about 27:0 » diameter, and
here with walls 2.6 4 thick, when short often ending in attaching discs
70-300 » diameter, when longer (3-8 mm. in length) sometimes with
bulbous tip of about 40 « diameter.

Specimens examined, Gopnath, Iyengar 452, 24-8-61; Rao 519,
13-10-61 ; Thivy 568, 11-11-61, 1688, 23-4-62, 2800, 29-7-62.

Habitat. On the western shores of the Gulf of Cambay, the waters
of which are turbid nearly all round the year, Gopnath is situated ; and
it has a limestone reef which is about 4 km. long and 100 metres wide
very rugged and gradually sloping. The plant grows in the mid-littoral,
on the borders of and inside tide-pools and on the sides of low tide
streamlets. It attaches itself partly to smooth rock-surface and partly
to sand etc., in the silt which, as is well known for the plant, it accumu-
lates by means of its numerous and often densely branched rhizoids.
At low tide, the plant is exposed to an extent, or fully immersed ; and at
high tide it is at a depth of about 2 metres. At all times of the year the
plants are covered, often closely, with Cocconeis clandestina Schmitz,
the frustules of which are cemented to the surface of stolon and erect
branches. In November the submerged plants of C. fastigiata var.

436 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

fastigiata were concealed by a brown cloud .of the chain diatoms
Biddulphia pulchella Gray and B. levis Ehrenberg.

The plants growing in deep silt reach a height of 9 cm., and are
characterized by thin assimilators, distinctly dichotomous erect axes,
and chlorotic, often rhizoidiferous, basal regions of the erect axes.
Plants more superficially embedded attain a height of 5 cm., bear thicker
assimilators than the former, and have chiefly alternate, opposite or sub-
whorled, rarely in part dichotomous branching of the erect system.

At Gopnath, the variety is at its best from the end of July to Feb-
ruary, though present all round the year.

Geographical Distribution. Bermudas, Florida, West Indies, Hon-
duras, Panama, Brazil, Japan (Ryukyu Is.), Friendly Is., Philippines,
Indonesia, India.

Observations. The stolons are slightly thicker than the branches
of the erect system. In transverse section of the stolon the trabeculae
are curled and contorted in the middle, but fused central areas formed
by the trabeculae are not present as are seen, at intervals, along the length
of the stolons in Caulerpa verticillata J. Ag. However, fusions (Fig.
13) at points where a few trabeculae cross are seen. Usually the rhizoids
arise on the stolon between the points from where the erect axes start.
Rhizoids exhibit special wall thickening, up to 13°0 », at their points
of origin. The wall of the stolon has 2-4 distinct layers and these in
turn are finely stratified. Stolons have numerous starch grains, Rhizoids
and their bulbous tips are at times densely filled with them. The attach-
ing discs develop from clusters of short, coralloid processes on the bul-
bous tips of’rhizoids. The actively growing tips of rhizoids are slightly
distended and have a cap-shaped cover of mucilage (Fig. 12).

When assimilatory branches are subwhorled they are in groups of
3-4, rarely 5. The trabeculae are visible through the walls of stolon and
erect system, especially in bleached specimens. When growth in the
Indian plant is luxuriant, groups of small rhizoids are at times seen all
along some of the assimilatory branches at intervals of 1°0-1°5 mm.
from apex to base, while some other branches show a group of rhizoids
at the apex only. Boergesen (1913) observes that assimilators may serve
for vegetative propagation. 3

Discussion. From the West Indian plant our plant varies in the upper
range in height, namely 9 cm. in our plant and 3 cm. in the other as
given by Taylor (1960). The plant in Japan also reaches a height of
3 cm. according to Okamura (1916). Further the upper limits in dia-
meter of the stolon and of the branches of the erect system in the Indian
plant are nearly double those of the West Indian plant,

ON CAULERPA FASTIGIATA MONT. VAR. FASTIGIATA IN INDIA 437

Caulerpa fastigiata Mont. var. fastigiata f. minor W. v. Bosse in
Ann. J. bot., Buitenz. 15: 363, t. 20, ff. 1-2, 1898; Boergesen in
Danske Vidensk. Selskab. Biol. Med. 20(6) : 36, 1946. (Plate I, figs.
6 and 7, Plate II, figs. 14-16)

Plants 0°3-1°5 cm. in height with branched stolon and erect axes.
Stolons terete, 266-392 ,. diameter, with acute tips and stratified walls
of 5:2-10°5 , thickness, with numerous transverse trabeculae of 2°5-
30 yw thickness and contorted in the middle of the stolon, with starch
grains up to 7°8 long and more or less pyriform. Rhizoids 0-1-1°0 mm,
long, 48-168 » diameter, with terminal discs 100-480 «. diameter. Erect
primary axes in diameter about 200-316 » below, rather narrowed at
point of insertion on stolon, with starch grains up to 7°8 uw long, with
walls 2°6-5°2 ,« thick, with branchlets alternate, opposite, or subwhorled.
Branchlets arising on all sides of erect axes, when short about 1°0-2°5 mm.
in length and arched-clavate to cylindrical with lower part of arch 140-
192 « diameter and upper 220-300 ,« diameter, when longer up to 4mm.
long and subclavate to cylindrical with 156-240 « diameter. Branchlets
with walls 2°6-3°9 ;/+ thick, with starch grains up to 7°8 yu long usually
and rarely 13:0 ~ long and having 2°6-5°2 « diameter at broader end,
with transverse trabeculae 1.2-2.0 » thick and much contorted in the
middle of the branchlets.

Specimens examined. Gopnath, Thivy 1694, 23-4-62.

Habitat. On vertical, smooth, rocky walls of streamlets, in the mid-
littoral of the limestone reef ; at low tide they were found exposed just
above the water level. They were attached to membranous polychaete
worm cases, to a tough and wiry dendroid coelenterate, to Amphiroa
fragilissima as also to shell particles.

Geographical Distribution. Brazil, Mauritius.

The figures given by Madame Weber van Bosse of f. minor have been
of help in identification of the present plant.

Caulerpa fastigiata Mont. var. fastigiata f. delicatula Thivy & Visal
form. nov. (Plate I, figs. 8 and 9 ; Plate II, figs. 17-21)

Plantulae 3 cm. altae, stolone repente ornatae ; stolon 168-252 1
diameter. Axis erectus, inclusa parte basali subverticillata 1-2 cm,
longus, 120-204 » diameter, crassior ad basin, parte terminali filiformi
1-2 cm. longa, diametri uniformis 120-170 ». Grana amyloidea in stolone
et rhizoideis amplissima 7°8-13°0 , longa. Ramuli late arcuati, clavati,
c. 1 mm. longi. Differt a f. minor Web. v. Bosse statura altiore,
stolone tenuiore, et ramulis assimilatoriis altius arcuatis.

Typus positus in Herb. CS & MCR ad Bhavnagar sub numero
Iyengar 719, 1-12-1961.

438 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

Plants reaching 3 cm. in height, with creeping branched stolon, and
with erect axes. Stolon 168-252 diameter, with pointed tips and wall
2°6-5°2 » thick usually, with transverse trabeculae 2 1 thick, these con-
torted in the middle, with starch grains often 7°8-13-0 « long. Rhizoids
reaching 7 mm. length, 70-120 » diameter, with wall 2°5 « thick, with starch
grains often 7°8-13°0 « long and 3-9-5:2 wide, with discs 216-240 ju dia-
meter. Erect axes branched to second or third degree, slender, with
lower part subverticillate and upper part filiform. Determinate
branchlets on verticillate part short, about 1:0 mm. long usually, in part
to 2 mm. long, clavate, arcuate, crowded, alternate, opposite or in sub-
whorled groups of 3 to 5, at the upper part of arch 180-240 » diameter,
at the lower part 120-180 « diameter, with wall 2°5-3°2 » thick, with thin
transverse trabeculae and a few longitudinal trabeculae about 1:5 » thick.
Verticillate portion of erect axes 1-2 cm. in length, 120-180 diameter
above, thicker below and 144-204 « diameter. Filiform portion of erect
axes 1-2 cm. in length, 120-170 diameter. Primary branchlets of fili-
form part of erect axes opposite, semiwhorled or alternate, 120-156.
diameter, straight, cylindrical with wall 1.3-2.6 w thick, 2 mm. or more
in length. Starch grains in erect axes 5:2 » long, commonly 7°8-13°0
long, with broader end 2°6-5°2 w wide, slightly smaller in general than in
the stolon and rhizoid.

Specimen examined. Okha, at Port Office reef, Iyengar 719, 1-12-1961.

Habitat. In lower littoral, at low tide mark, growing on sand-covered
limestone reef, with rhizoids attached to shell particles.

In general aspect the taller and more branched habit of the new form
contrasts with the shorter, less branched plant, f. minor (3:0 cm, against
1°5 cm.) ; on the other hand the upper limit in diameter with reference
to the stolon, the erect axes and the branchlets are less in the taller form,
namely f. delicatula, than in f. minor (250 p against 400 » diameter in the
case of stolon; and 240 yw against 300 ~ diameter in the case of erect axes
and branchlets). The trabeculae in the determinate branchlets of f.
delicatula are about 1°5 » thick against 2°0 » thick in those of f. minor.
The starch grains in the stolon and rhizoids of f. delicatula are distinctly
longer than in those of f. minor, being commonly 10°4-13°0 » long in the
former and not often longer than 7°8 y in the latter.

In var. fastigiata and both its forms, starch grains are often densely
packed in the stolon and rhizoids. By and large the trabeculae of the
stolon and erect system are transverse in the three taxa and more or less
contorted in the middle of the axes, where fusion between pairs of, or a
few, trabeculae occur. A few, very fine, longitudinal trabeculae are seen
in all three taxa,

JouRN. BomBAYy NAT. HIST. Soc. PLATE I

C.J. MALI

Caulerpa fastigiata var. fastigiata from Gopnath: Figs. | and 2. Shorter
plants (4:5 cm. high) showing stolon and erect system; Fig. 3. Stolon with
rhizoids terminating in coralloid discs, of shorter plant; Figs. 4 and 5. Taller
plant (9cm. high): Fig. 4. Showing portion with alternate and opposite
branches; Fig. 5. Showing portion of same plant with chiefly dichotomous
branching. Caulerpa fastigiata var. fastigiata f. minor from Gopnath: Fig. 6.
Stolon with an attaching disc and an erect axis bearing subwhorled determinate
branchlets ; Fig. 7. Stolon showing trabeculae, and rhizoid ending in discs.
Caulerpa fastigiata var. fastigiata f. delicatula from Okha ; Fig. 8. Habit showing
stolon with rhizoids, a large and several small attaching discs, erect axes with
subverticillate lower part and filiform upper part ; Fig. 9. Surface view of deter-
minate branchlet showing transverse trabeculae

PLATE Il

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hisr. Soc.

3
<
=
3
i>)

aulerpa fastigiata Mont. var. fastigiata

For explanations see opp. page

ON CAULERPA FASTIGIATA MONT. VAR. FASTIGIATA IN INDIA 439

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The writers wish to express their gratitude to Dr. D. S. Datar,
former Director of the Institute, for facilities and encouragement received.
They thank Dr. H. Santapau, Director, Botanical Survey of India, for
kindly translating the diagnosis into Latin.

SUMMARY
Caulerpa fastigiata Mont. var. fastigiata known from Bombay is
reported for the first time from Gujarat State, while forma minor Web. v.
Bosse of this variety is a new report for India, and forma delicatula Thivy
& Visal. of the same variety is a new form.

REFERENCES

BoERGESEN, F. (1913-20) : The marine
algae of the Danish West Indies. I.
Chlorophyceae. Dansk. Bot. Arkiv 1
(4): 1-158+2, 126 figs., map, 1913.

———— (1932): Some Indian Green
and Brown Algae especially from the
shores of the Presidency of Bombay, II.
Journ. Indian Bot. Soc. 11(1): 51-70,
tta2, flO:

———— (1935): A list of marine

algae from Bombay. Kongl. Danske
Vidensk. Selskab. Biol. Med. 12 (2):
3-64, tt. 10, ff. 25.
— (1946): Some marine algae
from Mauritius. An additional list of
species to Part I, Chlorophyceae. ibid.
20 (6) : 3-64, ff. 27.

Dawson, E. Y. (1954) : Marine plants
in the vicinity of the Institut Oceano-
graphique de Nha Trang, Viet Nam.
Pacific Science 8 (4) : 373-481, ff. 63.

‘GILBERT, W. J. (1942): Notes on

Reprinted from Papers of the Mich. Acad.
Sci. Arts, Letters 27, 1941.

MONTAGNE, J. F. C. (1842) : Algae, pp.
1-104, tt. 1-5. Jn Ramon de la Sagra,
Histoire physique, politique et naturelle
de I’Ile de Cuba. Botanique—plantes
cellulaires. x-+549 (1838-1842). Paris.
(Fide Weber v. B., 1898, p. 262).

OKAMURA, K. (1916): Icones of
Japanese Algae. 4: 1-205, tt. 200.
Tokyo.

TAYLOR, W. RANDOLPH (1960):
Marine Algae of the eastern tropical and
subtropical coasts of the Americas. Univ.
Michigan Stud., Sci. Ser., 21: ix+662,
tt. 1-80.

WEBER VAN Bosse, A. (1898) : Mono-
graphie des Caulerpes. Ann. Jard. Bot.
Buitenzorg 15: 243-401, tt. 20-34.

——— (1913-1923) : Liste des algue-
du Siboga. I. Myxophyceae, Chloros
phyceae, Phaeophyceae (with Th. Rein-

bold), Siboga Expeditie... 59a: 1-186,
ff. 1-52, tt. 1-5, 1913.

Caulerpa from Java and the Philippines.

Explanation to Plate II

Caulerpa fastigiata var. fastigiata from Gopnath. Fig. 10. T. S.
of stolon showing stratified wall, trabeculae and starch grains ; Fig. 11.
Lengthwise half of stolon in surface view showing wall and trabeculae ;
Fig. 12. Tips of two rhizoids showing mucilage caps, cell wall, and
starch grains; Fig. 13. Two trabecular fusions and some starch grains
from T. S. of stolon. Figs. 14-16. Caulerpa fastigiata var. fastigiata
f. minor from Gopnath: Fig. 14. T. S. of stolon showing stratified cell
wall, trabeculae, and starch grains; Fig. 15. Surface view of arcuate
determinate branchlet showing cell wall and trabeculae; Fig. 16. Starch
grains, and fusions between trabeculae from T. S. of stolon. Figs. 17-21.
Caulerpa fastigiata var. fastigiata f. delicatula from Okha: Fig. 17.
Habit showing stolon, erect axes, rhizoids, arcuate determinate branch-
lets, and filiform branches ; Fig. 18. T. S. of stolon showing stratified
wall, trabeculae, and starch grains; Fig.19. Starch grains, and fusions
between trabeculae, from T. S. of stolon; Fig. 20. Rhizoid with a
lateral disc formed of short branches ; Fig. 21. Rhizoid with a terminal
disc formed by a number of branches. me |

Fish Fauna of Muzaffarnagar District,
Uttar Pradesh

BY
C. L. MAHAJAN

Department of Zoology, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur

(With a map)

SYNOPSIS

A collection of eighty-four species of fish representing forty-nine
genera, twenty families, and.eight orders is reported together with brief
notes on the maximum size, seasonal availability, breeding habits, etc.
of each species. The report is based on two and a half years’ work on
the fish fauna of district Muzaffarnagar in the upper Gangetic plain.
Analysis of the different species reveals that 75°% of them belong to a
single order, the Order Cypriniformes (Berg 1940), thirteen of them air-
breathing and eight hill-stream species. Thus, the fish fauna is typical of
sub-tropical fresh waters with a mixture of Himalayan forms. The
richness of water resources and the possibility of the area developing into
a big fish-producing centre is indicated. Distribution and nomenclature
of some of the species is discussed in the light of the previous work and
the present study. :

INTRODUCTION

No attempt has so far been made to explore the fish fauna of
Muzaffarnagar District in the upper Gangetic plain in spite of the richness
of the water resources and a possible zoogeographical significance.
Faunal studies covering much wider areas, such as those of Hamilton
(1822) or Day (1878), are the only sources of information. More recently
fish collections from three adjoining areas have been reported: from
Eastern Doons (Hora & Mookerjee 1936 ; Lal & Chatterjee 1962), Meerut
(Sinha & Shiromny 1953), and Delhi State (Majumdar 1958). In an
earlier communication the author (Mahajan 1961) briefly reported a
collection of sixty-two species belonging to seventeen different families
based on one year’s (1959-60) study of the fish fauna of Muzaffarnagar
District. The present paper records a more exhaustive study of the same
area carried out for more than two and a half years (July 1959-February

FISH FAUNA OF MUZAFFARNAGAR DISTRICT, UTTAR PRADESH 441

1962). In all, eighty-four different species were collected representing
forty-nine genera and twenty families as compared with sixty species
reported by Sinha & Shiromny (loc. cit.) from Meerut and sixty-
two by Majumdar (loc. cit.) from Delhi State.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The fishes were obtained with the help of fishermen. Cast net was
most commonly used although sweeping, towing, and bag nets were also
frequently employed. Visits to the Muzaffarnagar fish market were
made almost daily during this period (July 1959-February 1962) while
collections at the fishing sites were done once every week. Brief notes
on the nature and size of catch were made at the spot. Representative
specimens of each species were brought to the laboratory. Coloration
and any other feature of special interest was recorded from the fresh fish.
This was followed by detailed taxonomic examination either in fresh or
preserved specimens as convenient.

PHYSICAL FEATURES

District Muzaffarnagar is situated in the doab of rivers Ganga and
Jamuna, between districts Meerut in the south and Saharanpur on the
north. On the west, River Jamuna separates it from Karnal District of
Punjab, and on the east River Ganga forms the boundary separating it
from Bijnor District. It is roughly rectangular in shape with an altitude
varying from 256 metres to 238 metres above sea-level and lying between
north latitude 29°11’30’-29°45’15” and east longitude nS; 5”-78°7'
covering an area of about 4300 sq. km.

--Fhere--is--a--considerable slope from north to south. This can
be judged from the fact that within half a mile from the northern
boundary of the district to within a short distance below the southern
boundary no less than five falls are required on Ganges canal to moderate
the otherwise excessive slope of the channel canal. This, coupled with
the fact that the main rivers have just descended into the plains from
the Himalayas, accounts for a number of hill-stream fishes recorded
below.

FISHERY RESOURCES

The district has fich fishery resources (see map). Besides the two
large rivers (Ganga and Jamuna) mentioned above, there are eight smaller
ones which run through it from north to south. They are : Budi Ganga,
Solani nadi, Nagan nadi, Kali nadi, Hindon nadi, Krishna nadi, Katha
nadi, and Khokhar nadi. Moreover, there are four irrigation canals :
Ganges canal, Anupshehr branch canal, Deoband branch canal, and East
Jamuna canal. In addition to these ten rivers and four irrigation canals
there are numerous perennial and seasonal ponds and lakes all over the

442 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

district which are fed by local canal distributaries, flood, and rainwater
drains. Nevill (1903) in the District Gazetteer estimates that approxi-
mately 327,310 acres of land was under water. The average rainfall

REFERENCES

“ive FLOODED AR
; (UNSSEE SD” Moe sey y

@ KHADAR

M= MUZAFFARNAGAR

varies. from 84 cm. to 102 cm. in different parts of the district. This
richness of water resources has resulted-in a varied fish fauna fairly | re=
presentative of the north Indian fresh waters. ssh hed

THe Fisu FAUNA

The detailed list of the fishes collected during the period is given
below. The classification is after Berg (1940). Local names are
given wherever available. Information about the maximum size
observed, habitat, seasonal availability, breeding habits, or any other
peculiarity noted during the course of the work is also recorded briefly.

DISCUSSION

An analysis of the fishes listed shows that 75% of the species belong
to a single order, viz. Cypriniformes. About thirteen species are known
to have varying degrees of air-breathing capacity. Of these, ten have
remarkable accessory respiratory organs and one (Amphipnous cuchia)
is in the words of Das (1940) the ‘ most highly evolved air-breathing fish

epee apes

FISH FAUNA OF MUZAFFARNAGAR DISTRICT, UTTAR PRADESH 443

among the Indian teleosts’. It will also be observed that a number of

genera, e.g. Gagata, Glyptothorax, and Garra, characteristic of hill .

streams are found here. The only possible explanation of their
Occurrence in considerable numbers, specially during winter and mon-
soon, is that they are swept along the current and find conditions at least
tolerable for survival and growth. In this connection, the presence of
an excessive slope as described in the physical features of this region
assumes significance. Such genera as Crossocheilus, Glossogobius,
Noemacheilus, and Puntius, characteristic of the upper reaches of rivers,
are very well represented here. The fish fauna of the district may, there-
fore, be characterized as sub-tropical with a mixture of Himalayan forms.

The regular availability of Clarias batrachus (Linn.) from a number of
ponds in the district throughout the year is interesting in view of
the report by Sinha & Shiromny (1953) that the species has only a
localized distribution ‘being found only in few ponds at Garh-
Mukteshwar in the months of April, May, and June’. It appears that
Clarias batrachus is present throughout the year in these ponds, but these
fishes are easily netted only in April, May, and June as most of the water
dries up at that time and the level is the lowest. Netting from July on-
wards becomes increasingly difficult as the water level rises with the onset
of rains. The fish finds a safe place in the bottom of the pond which is
its natural habitat.

The distribution of Mystus corsula (Ham.) is reported (Day 1878) to
be from ‘ Orissa through Bengal and Assam’. The only report of its
occurrence in this region is by Sinha & Shiromny (1953) from Hindon

~ nadi in Meerut District. Similarly Sicamugil (Mugil) cascasia (Hamilton)

has been recorded by Day from ‘ rivers of N.W. Provinces and Assam ’.
The only report of the occurrence of this species in this region is from
Jamuna River from Delhi State (Majumdar 1958).

Although Berg’s classification (1940, 1955) has been followed, certain
misspellings and changes in current generic names pointed out by Briggs
(1961) and others have been duly taken note of and corrections made
accordingly. For example, Noemacheilus (van Hasselt 1823), wrongly
spelt as Nemachilus by Berg (1940, 1955) perhaps following Giinther
(1868) ; and Channa (Scopoli 1777, as pointed by Myers & Shapovalov
1931) instead of Ophiocephalus (Hamilton 1822) or Ophicephalus (Bloch
1793). Generic names Rhinomugil Gill and Sicamugil Fowler have been
preferred following Pillay (1962). Briggs (1961) pointed out that Syn-
branchus (Bloch 1795) rather than Symbranchus (Miller 1841) is correct.
If so, it would be reasonable to spell the order named after this genus
Synbranchiformes instead of Symbranchiformes (Berg 1940).

~ For most of the fishes the breeding season is the monsoon (J uly-Sept. yp

but some species are known to breed much before the onset of the monsoon,

as has been observed in Mystus, Wallago, Channa, and Mastacembelus.
5

444 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

The behaviour, courtship, spawning, migration, etc. of these fishes would
be an interesting and important subject for further investigation.

‘At least 33% of the fishes listed are of considerable economic
importance. A proper development of the fishery of the area can make
it a great fish-producing centre, supplying fish to great consuming centres
such as Calcutta and Delhi. Even at present all large-sized fish are sent
to Calcutta. This aspect of the subject is proposed to be dealt in
a separate paper. |

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Grateful thanks are due to Dr. V. P. Agrawal, ph.p. (Lond.), F.L.S.,
Head of the Zoology Department, D.A.V. College, Muzaffarnagar (U.P.),
for extending all necessary facilities and encouragement during the period
of collection. I am indebted to Professor L. S. Ramaswami, D.Sc., F.N.I.,
Head of the Zoology Department, University of Rajasthan, for reading

the manuscript and suggesting improvements.

Thanks are also due

to the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, for help in identifying some

species.

REFERENCES

BERG, L. S. (1940): Classification of
Fishes both Recent and Fossil. Trav.
Inst. Zool. Acad. Sci. U.R.S.S. 4 (2):
87-345. (in Russian). Reprinted with
English translation. Ann Arbor, Michi-
_gan. 1947

*____._____ (1955): Classification of
Fishes both Recent and Fossil. (Second
Edition). ibid. 20: 1-286. (in Russian).

* BiLocu, D. M. E. (1785-1795): Natur-
geschichte der auslandischen Fische.
Berlin. 9 parts.

Briccs, J. C. (1961): Emendated
Generic Names in Berg’s Classification of
Fishes. Copeia 1961 (2): 161-166.

Das, B. K. (1940) : Nature and Causes
of Evolution and adaptation of Air
Breathing Fishes. (A résumé). Proc.
Indian. Sci. Cong. 27th Session, Presiden-
tial Address, Zoology Section: 216-260.

Day, F. (1878) : The Fishes of India:
Being a Natural History of the Fishes
known to inhabit the Seas and Fresh-
waters of India, Burma and Ceylon, Vols.
I & Ul. London. (Reprint, 1958).

GUNTHER, A. (1859-1870) : Catafogue

of the Fishes in the British Museum.
8 Vols. London.
_ ™ HAMILTON, F. (1822) : An account of
the Fishes found in the River Ganges
and its branches. Archibold Constable,
Edinburgh.

* VAN HASSELT, J. C. (1823) : Poissons

de Java. Alg. Konst. Letterbode. 2
(35) : 133.

Hora, S. L., & MUKERJEE, D. D.
(1936): Fish of Eastern Doons, United
Provinces. Rec. Indian Mus. 38 (2):
133-146.

LAL, M. B., & CHATTERJEE, P. (1962) :
Survey of the Eastern Doon fishes with
certain notes on their Biology. Jour.
Zool. Soc. India 14 (2) : 230-243.

Mauwagsan, C. L. (1961): Fish Fauna
of Muzaffarnagar District. Proc. 48th
Session of the Ind. Sci. Cong., Roorkee.
Part III. . Abstracts : 432.

MAJUMDAR, N. N. (1958): On a col-
lection of Fish from Delhi State. J-
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 (2) : 366-370.

* MULLER, J. (1841): Abh. Akad.
Berlin, 1839, 245. (Title not available.)

* Myers, G. S., & SHAPOVALOV, L.
(1931) : On the Identity of Ophiocephalus
and Channa, two genera of Labyrinth
Fishes. Peking nat. Hist. Bull. 6: 33-7.

NEVILL, H. R. (1903) : Muzaffarnagar,
A Gazetteer: Being Vol. 3 of the District
Gazetteers of the United Provinces of
Agra and Oudh. Reprint, 1920.

PILLAY, S. R. (1962): A revision of
Indian Mugilidae. Parts I & Il. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59 (1 & 2): 254-
270, and 547-576. :

SINHA, B. M., & SHIROMNY, P. A.
(1953) : The Fish of Meerut. Rec. Ind.
Mus. 51 (1) 61-65.

* References marked with asterisk have not been consulted in original and have

been quoted from Briggs (1961).

FISH FAUNA: OF MUZAFFARNAGAR DISTRICT, UTTAR PRADESH 445

*(A1eNIG9,J-19qGUI9DEq) I9j}UIM SULINP sIoquINU 190}e913 UI

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

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See — ——————— ——

S. No. Scientific name
7 Barilius barna |
(Hamilton)
8 Barilius vagra
(Hamilton)
9 Barilius modestus
(Day)
10 Barilius blendensis
(Hamilton)
11 Barbus (Tor) tor -
(Hamilton)
12 Puntius chagunia
(Hamilton)
13. Puntius sarana
(Hamilton)
14. Puntius conchonius

17.

18
19

si a

tS
wa

(Hamilton)

Puntius stigma
(Hamilton)

Puntius chrysopterus
(Hamilton)

Puntius punjabensis
(ay)

Puntius sophore
(Hamilton)
Puntius ticto
(Hamilton)

Aspidoparia morar
(Hamilton)

Crossocheilus latius punjabensis

Mukerji

Amblypharyngodan mola
(Hamilton)

Rohitee cotio
(Hamilton)

Catla catla
(Hamilton)

Esomus danricus
(Hamilton)

Cirrhina mrigala
(Hamilton)

Cirrhina reba
(Hamilton)

Labheo rohita
(Hamilton)

Labeo calbasu
(Hamilton)

Laheo gonius

(Hamilton)

Labeo dero
(Hamilton)

Local name

Popta

Mahseer, Tor
Chhiban

Durai, Putha

Puthi

Moraki

Rori
Mohil
Gurda

Katla

Naini, Narain, or
Mrigal

Raibata, Reba
Rohu
Kalbauns

Kursa

Chilwa

Remarks
(Habitat, seasonal availability, etc.)

Maximum size
observed

10 cm. Rivers, ponds, and lakes. Rather uncommon.

20 cm. Mostly confined to Ganga.

62 cm. Mostly from Ganges or Hindon nadi.

45 cm. Available from all the rivers throughout the year but more
abundant during summer.

30 cm. The most common mahseer both from rivers and ponds.

Generally of small Available from ponds and rivers alike throughout the year
size not exceed- but specially after monsoon (September-November).
ing 12°5 cm.

18 cm. Both from rivers and ponds. Occasionally available
throughout the year.

20 cm. Riverine. Occasionally available specially after rains and
during winter.

10cm Often fished both from ponds and rivers in fairly good
numbers.

10cm Most abundant among the minor carps, fished throughout
the year from rivers and ponds,

180 cm. Available from ponds and rivers. Used for pisciculture.
Highly prized as food. Mostly sent to Calcutta.

10 cm. Only occasionally netted but found both in ponds and rivers.

90 cm. More frequently available than either Catla or Rohu both
from ponds and rivers. Large-sized fish mostly sent to
Calcutta. Weighs up to ten kg.

31cm. One of the ~ost frequently seen fish in the market.

Available from both ponds and rivers in large numbers.
I

90 cm. The most prized food fish both from ponds and rivers.
Used for pisciculture. Big-sized fish are sent to Calcutta.

45 cm. The most common major carp in Muzaffarnagar market.

45 cm. Generally available throughout the year from both ponds
and rivers. Less during monsoon (July-September),
more common from October to February.

15 cm. Mostly riverine, frequently available.

—— 000 eee

OPP

(6) 29 JOA ‘ALAIOOS “ISTH TKYNLVN AVAWOE 'TYNYNOL

Ley HSAG Ud UV LLA ‘LOIMISIG UV¥OVNUVAAFZAW AO VNAKA HSI

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

448

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449

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Maximum size Remarks

S. No. Scientific name Localiname observed (Habitat, seasonal availability, etc.)

32 Labeo pangusia — 15 cm. Both from rivers and ponds throughout the year in fairly
(Hamilton) good numbers.

33 Labeo doycheilus — 91 cm. Fairly common throughout the year in both rivers and
(Hamilton) ponds.

34 Garra gotyla Pathar chat 15 cm. A few specimens occasionally netted from Solani nadi and

(Gray) Kali nadi.
35 Danio devario _ 10 cm. Mainly from ponds.

So _- cae ne Sl

(Hamilton)

Noemacheilus corica
(Hamilton)

Noemacheilus botia
(Hamilton)

Noemacheilus zonatus
(McClelland)

Noemacheilus montanus
(McClelland)

Botia lohachata
(Chaudhri)

Lepidocephalichthys guntea

(Hamilton)

Wallago attu

(Bloch & Schneider)

Ompok bimaculatus
(Bloch)

Mystus (Osteobergus)
seenghala (Sykes)

Mystus (Mystus) cavasius
(Sykes)

Mystus (Mystus) vittatus
(Bloch)
Mystus (Mystus) aor
(Hamilton)

Mystus bleekeri
(Hamilton)

Billi, Bagatia

Mulley, [aichi

Pabda

Seenghara

Kevas

Tengan

IV. Family Cobitidae

5 cm. Mostly netted during rainy season along the Ganges and
Jamuna in pools and puddles formed after floods.

75 cm.

Same as Noemacheilus corica except that Noemacheilus

3jcm botia is more widely distributed.

10 cm.

15 cm. Available from ponds and small rivers like Kali nadi, Solani
nadi, etc. More common than any of the species of
Noemacheilus.

10 cm. Very rarely netted.

Division stLuRi

V. Family Siluridae
150 cm. By far the most common cat-fish and economically one of
the most important. Available from all rivers and many
ponds of large size. Breeding starts towards the end of
April. The fish becomes comparatively scarce during
monsoon (July-September) but becomes plentifulin winter
(November-March).

30 cm. Mostly riverine commonly available throughout the year.

VI. Family Bagridae
90 cm. Next only to Wallago attu in its economic importance among
cat-fishes and perhaps more prized as food. Less com-
mon during monsoon (July-September) but becomes
increasingly abundant from October onward to April.
Available from all rivers and big ponds. Breeding starts
in March or April.

25 cm. Mostly from rivers although some ponds may also harbour
them. Commonly available throughout the year.

15 cm. Very common from both ponds and rivers. Can be trans-
ported alive small distances (15 minutes to half an hour)
without water.

Mostly riverine. Much less common than Seenghara,

Common in rivers and ponds.

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8hr

(6) 29 104 ‘AILFIQOS “ISIH TVYNLYN AVAWOE “IFNYNOL

6by HSAGW Yd YVLLIA ‘LOM ISIG YPOVNUFAIVZAW AO VND W+ HSI

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

450

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Maximum size Remarks
S. No. Scientific name Local'name observed (Habitat, seasonal availability, etc.)
49 Mystus corsula _— 30 cm. Only occasionally met with.
y. a
(Hamilton)
50 Rita rita (Hamilton) Khagga 120 cm. Mostly riverine. Very common during monsoon but
ita ri

51 Chaca chaca
(Hamilton)

52 Eutropiichthys vacha
(Hamilton)

53 Silonia silondia
(Hamilton)

54 Clupisoma garua
(Hamilton)

55 Pseudotropius murius
(Hamilton)

56 Pseudotropius goongwari

(Hamilton)

57 Pangasius pangasius
(Hamilton)

58 Ailia coila (Hamilton)

59 Heteropneustes fossilis
(Bloch)

(60 .Clarias batrachus
(Linnaeus)

61 Bagarius bagarius
(Hamilton)

Charkhi, Bacha

Silond

Bachua

suddenly disappears with the end of rains (beginning of
Gast From October to June only stray specimens
up to 15 cm. in length are netted, but with the onset of
monsoon specimens 30-120 cm. in length become suddenly
abundant. These fish have a remarkable power of sus-
tenance outside water and are frequently marketed alive
(without water) although no special accessory respita-
tory organs are known to exist.

VII. Family Chacidae

16:2 cm. Only one specimen from Ganga.

VIII. Family Schilbeidae

35 cm. Mostly riverine. Common throughout the year, but more
so during winter. Excellent sport.

ly in Ganga, Jamuna, and Hindon nadi through-
see Hous oe att In Kali nadi, Solani nadi, and others only

during monsoon.

30 cm. Mostly riverine, available throughout the year.

Gachua 24 cm. Riverine. Rather scarce.

Pangas 125 cm. Restricted to large rivers like Ganga and Jamuna. Occa-
sionally ascends Hindon nadi and Kali nadi when water
level is high. Large specimens generally sent to Calcutta.

Saptyan, Basmati 18 cm. Riverine, available throughout the year.in large numbers.

IX. Family Saccobranchidae

Singhi 31 cm. Available throughout the year, mostly from ponds.
Dreaded for its ‘ venomous’ pectoral spines which are
promptly removed by fishermen as soon] as they catch
them.

X. Family Clariidae

Magur 45 cm. From most of the big-sized ponds and lakes in the Muzaffar-
nagar district. Available practically throughout the
year although difficult to net from July to October when
the water level in the ponds rises considerably and they
can escape the fishermen’s nets.

XI. Family Sisoridae
Gonch 182 cm. Restricted to larger rivers (Ganga and Jamuna) for the main

part of the year, but during monsoon it ascends to Kali
nadi, Hindon nadi, and Krishna nadi.

OSP

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

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FISH FAUNA OF MUZAFFARNAGAR DISTRICT, UTTAR PRADESH 453

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Maximum size Remarks

S. No. Scientific name Local name observed (Habitat, seasonal availability, etc.)
2 ata cenia 5 5 < ;
eee (Hamilton) All these species of Gagata are frequently available from all
the rivers. They can be netted in hundreds during rainy
63 Gagata nangra season when they seem to be swept down with the
Z (Hamilton) Padna current. Of these three species, Gagata viridescens is most
frequent and attains up to 15 cm. in length, others do not
64 Gagata viridescens exceed 10 cm.
(Hamilton)
65 Glyptothorax telchitia Tilier 15 cm. Occasionally netted, more frequently during rains or winter.
(Hamilton)
66 Sisor rabdophorus Chamla 18 cm.+ Rarely netted, although available throughout the year.
(Hamilton) Sluggish, bottom-living, and of no food value. Fishermen
claim that a preparation from this fish provides a cure
for eczema.
XII. Family Amblycepidae
67 Amblyceps mangois => 45cm. Only two specimens collected.
(Hamilton)
Order OPHIOCEPHALIFORMES
XII. Family Ophiocephalidae
68 Channa punctatus Sauli 30 cm.
(Bloch)
69 Channa Striatus Saul 90 cm. The first three species (68-70) are available throughout the
(Bloch) year mostly from ponds. Of these C. striatus and C.
punctatus are much more common than C. gachua. C.
70 Channa gachua Sauli 30 cm. marulius, on the other hand, is mostly riverine.
(Hamilton)
71 Channa marulius Guldar Saul 125 cm.

a —_ —- __E c se

(Hamilton)

Glossogobius giuris
(Hamilton)

Ambasis nama
(Hamilton)

Ambasis ranga
(Hamilton)

Colisa fasciatus
(Bloch & Schneider)

Colisa lalius
(Cuvier & Valenciennes)

Nandus nandus
(Hamilton)

Rhinomugil (Mugil) corsula
(Hamilton)

Sicamugil (Mugil) cascasia
(Hamilton)

—$—<_______,
* excluding the upper caudal filament

Order PERCIFORMES

XIV. Family Gobidae

Gulwa 20 cm. Occasionally a few specimens netted from Kali nadi, Solani

nadi, Krishna nadi and Ganga.
XV. Family Centropomidae (Ambassidae)
Chandla 10 cm. Both the species are occasionally available from ponds all
over the district.
XVI. Family Anabantidae

Kharda 13 cm. Available throughout the year from ponds and lakes. Good
aquarium fish.

Kharda 5cm. Mostly from ponds in the district although much less com-
mon than C. fasciatus.

Bhedal, Kuwai 18 cm. Riverine. Frequently available from all the rivers.

Order MuGiLiroRMES
XVII. Family Mugilidae

Tara, Andwari 38 cm. Available mostly from rivers throughout the year, but peak
period of supply is just after the monsoon (September-
November). It becomes scarce in summer (April, May).
Khaksi 8 cm. Riverine. Available only during monsoon (July to

September) from Kali nadi and Solani nadi.
a

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

454

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SUIvU SYUSIOS

“ON 'S

Some plant records from the erstwhile
Central Provinces and Berar

K. M. BALAPURE

National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow

INTRODUCTION

From the perusal of the available literature it appears quite clear
that very little work has been done on the flora of the erstwhile Central
Provinces and Berar.

The first reference in this connection appears to be that of Brandis
(1874) and Graham (1911). Brandis (1874) wrote-a flora of NW. and
Central India and Graham (1911) prepared a list of wild plants found on
the Nagpur and Telankheri farms. Hole (1904) also contributed some
papers on the flora of Jubbulpore Forest Division. Witt (1908) and Haines
(1912-14) also prepared partial lists of trees, shrubs and economic herbs
found in the Forest Circles of Central Provinces and Berar. |

More recently Tiwari (1954, 1955) reported a number of grasses from
Madhya Pradesh. But he collected mostly in the south-east M.P., i.e.
from Bastar, Chanda, and Mandla districts. Mirashi (1954, 1959) made
contributions to our knowledge mostly about the hydrophytes of Nagpur
and its neighbourhood. Hewetson (1951) has drawn our attention to the
neglect of plant studies in the State. Work on the exploration of the
plants of this region has been taken up very recently by the Botanical
Survey of India (Sebastine & Balkrishnan 1963).

Since Hooker’s (1872-97) monumental FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA pro-
vincial floras have been prepared for most. of the States. It is only
Madhya Pradesh which does not possess a flora of its own.

Central Provinces and Berar, now Madhya Pradesh, occupy almost a
central position in the Indian Union, and show a mixture of plants
from the adjoining States. It is here that the Sal and Teak forests
meet. Through Chanda and south Bastar, the Madras plants make their
appearance ; from the east the Bihar and Orissa plants intrude into M.P.,
and the Bombay flora makes its appearance through Yeotmal and Buldana
districts of Berar. Through Jubbulpore and Sagar the Uttar Pradesh
flora commences. AD ks i
_ The present territories (before re-organization of States) included in
M.P. vary in altitude, rainfall; and soil but the similarities are greater

456 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

than the differences, and the present State (excluding certain outlying
parts) is a satisfactory botanical unit.

The author while on a botanical tour to the Central Provinces and
Berar in January-February 1959, and again in Sepiember-November
1959, has collected about 2000 plants and noticed a number of plants
from this area which are not mentioned in the above-mentioned works
except where otherwise stated. A number of weeds which are natura-
lized and established in other parts of India are seen in this province also.
These are marked with an asterisk (*).

The plants have been arranged according to Bentham & Hooker’s
system of classification and every attempt has been made to adjust the
nomenclature of plants according to the latest findings on the subject.

All the plants mentioned in this paper have been deposited in the
herbarium of the National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow.

After a very short description of the plant, which is ‘helpful in the
identification of the plant in the field, the locality, from which the plantd
were collected, is given. The numbers indicate the field book numbérs
attached to the specimens.

PLANT RECORDS

ANNONACEAE

Annona squamosa Linn.

Small tree. Naturalized. Loc.: Ravines near Narnala_ Fort
(609°6 m.), Distt. Akola. B? 66358. 7

NYMPHAEACEAE

Nymphaea nouchali Burm. f. Syn. N. pubescens Willd.

Large aquatic herb with pink, bluish and pale yellow dies. Loe:
Common in ditches and tanks about Ramtek (C.P.). BP! 57544. This
plant has not been reported by Graham (1913) from this area, and it
appears therefore that it has been introduced after that date.

MALVACEAE

*Malachra capitata Linn.

A suffruticose herb with yellow flowers. It is not indigenous but
getting naturalized. Loc. : Marshy places at Dharampeth, Nagpur and
Sonegaon Aerodrome, Nagpur. BP 70925, 70479. Recently reported
from this area by Mirashi (1959).

: In ‘noting the specimen numbers the abbreviations, ‘B’=Balapure and |
‘BP ’=Balapure and Party, have been used. ie:

PLANT RECORDS FROM THE CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR 457

*Malvastrum coromandelianum Garcke. Syn. M. tricuspidatum A. Gray
A herb with yellow flowers. Loc. : Achalpur Camp, Distt. Amravati
(Berar). BP 57834.

OXALIDACEAE

Oxalis corniculata Linn.

A prostrate herb with yellow flowers. Loc, : Chikalda (762 m.),
Distt. Amravati (Berar), BP 57764.

CUCURBITACEAE

Corallocarpus epigeus C. B. Clarke

Tendril climber with tuberous roots, fruits scarlet in the middle, the
base and beak green. Vern. Mirchi-kand. Loc. : On way to Narnala
Fort, Distt. Akola (Berar). B 66407.

RUBIACEAE

Oldenlandia aspera DC.

A stout annual herb with pale blue flowers. Loc.: Narnala Fort
(762 m.), Distt. Akola (Berar). B 66372.

COMPOSITAE

A canthospermum hispidum DC.

A South American introduced herb with yellow flowers and spiny
achenes. This plant has spread very rapidly far into the forests. Loc. :
Wari forest (609°6 m.), Distt. Akola (Berar) ; Muktagiri, Distt. Amravati
(Berar) ; also at Nagpur. BP 57680, 70926. This is the first record of
this plant from this area. From Nagpur it has been reported recently by
Mirashi (1959). |

Ageratum conyzoides Linn.

Annual weed with pale blue flowers. Loc. : Ramtek (C.P.) ; Nagpur.
BP 57494. :

*Lagasca mollis Cav.
An introduced central American herb with white flowers in a solitary
head-like terminal leafy inflorescence. Loc. : Achalpur Camp, Distt.
Amravati (Berar) ; Muktagiri, Distt. Amravati (Berar); Nagpur. Very
common in all the above localities. BP 57834, 57391, 57670, 70408.

458 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3).

*Tridax procumbens Linn. :

A procumbent hispid perennial herb with yellow-white flowers in
head on long peduncle. Native of South America. It has: been now
naturalized. Loc. : Ramtek (C.P.), Nagpur. BP 70917.

Vernonia divergens Edgew.
A tall handsome shrub reaching 1'2-1°5 m. with pink flowers.. Loc. :
Chikalda (762 m.), Distt. Amravati (Berar). BP 57718.

Vernonia cinerea (Linn.) Less.

A herbaceous plant with pink or lilac flowers. The plant is a variable
one. Loc. : Ramtek (C.P.), Nagpur. BP 57451, 57422.

Centratherum anthelminticum O. Kuntze. Syn. Vernonia anthelmintica
Willd.
A large erect annual about 0°6-0°9 m. with purplish flowers in : ea
corymbose head. Loc.: Near Narnala Fort (762 m.), Distt. Akola
(Berar). B 66482.

Sclerocarpus africanus Jacq.

An erect annual herb with yellow flowers, ovate acute serrate, stri-
gosely hairy leaves and beaked, ribbed fruit. Loc.: In black cotton
soil, particularly near field-hedges. Village. Pathardi, Distt. Akola
(Berar). B 66162.

CAMPANULACEAE

Campanula canescens Wall.
A slender delicate herb with very snsell white flowers. Loc. :
Muktagiri near Achalpur Camp, Distt. Amravati (Berar). B 57704.

Wahlenbergia gracilis DC.

An erect perennial herb with blue flowers on Jong peduncles and
linear leaves. Loc. : Near Narnala Fort (762 m.), Distt. Akola (Berar).
B 66471. :

PLUMBAGINACEAE

Plumbago zeylanica Linn.

A rambling subscandent perennial herb with white flowers and con-
spicuously glandular persistent calyces, the leaves ovate, membranous.
Loc. : On way to Narnala Fort (762 m. ) Distt. Akola Serie te Rocky
places. B 66495,

PLANT RECORDS FROM THE CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR_ 459
CONVOLVULACEAE

*Quamoclit coccinea Moench. Syn. Jpomoea coccinea Linn.

A weak slender twiner introduced from S. America. Naturalized.
Loc. : Storky Point Forest, Nagpur. BP 57407.

~ SOLANACEAE

Withania somnifera Dunal. ize
An erect branching undershrub reaching 1°5 m. in height ; all parts
minutely stellate tomentose. Leaves broadly ovate up to 10°2 cm. long
and little less in breadth ; flowers in axillary fascicles. Berry globose,
enclosed in enlarged calyx. Vern. Asgandh. Loc.: Village Pathardi,
Distt. Akola (Berar). B 66359. :

*Solanum seaforthianum Andr.

_ .A-pretty, somewhat woody climber with bluish purple flowers, fruit
a globose berry, glabrous and scarlet. Complete description of the plant
is available in Bor & Raizada’s book SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS
AND SHRUBS, Bombay, 1954. Loc. : Chikalda (762 m.), Distt. Amravati
(Berar). Cultivated and naturalized. BP 57816.

--SCROPHULARIACEAE ~

Bacopa monnieri (Linn.) Pennell. Syn. Herpestis monniera Benth.

A somewhat succulent creeping herb with blue flowers. Common
in. wet places. Vern. Nira brahmi. Loc. : Village Pathardi, Distt. Akola
(Berar). BP 57609.

Verbascum chinense (Linn.) Santapau. Syn. V. coromandelianum (Vahl)
Kuntze ; Celsia coromandeliana Vahl.

An erect ~‘grey-pubescent annual with yellow flowers. Loc. :
Muktagiri, Distt. Amravati (Berar), and Nagpur. BP 57676, 57353.

Lindernia parviflora (Roxb.) Haines. Syn. J/ysanthes parviflora Benth.

Erect slender herb. Leaves ovate-lanceolate, 5-10 mm. with 3-5
nerves from the base. Flowers white, 5-6 mm. on slender pedicels.
Loc. : Marble Rocks, Jubbulpore (C.P.).. BP 57294.

Lindernia pyxidaria All. Syn. Vandellia erecta Benth.

A small erect glabrous herb 10-2-20°4 cm. high, much branched from
the base with sessile 3-to 5-nerved elliptic, oblong or ovate leaves tapering
towards the base, lower 1:2-2 cm. long. Flower 5-7 mm. long white on

460 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

very slender axillary, sub-erect spreading or rarely deflexed pedicels.
Loc. : Marble Rocks, Jubbulpore (C.P.). BP 57312.

*Scoparia dulcis Linn. *
A small branched annual herb attaining a height of 2°6-12°7 cm. ;

flowers small whitish. Native of tropical America, now naturalized.
Loc. : Marble Rocks, Jubbulpore (C.P.). BP 57317.

*Mecardonia dianthera Pennel.

Small herb. Native of tropical America. Loc. : Marble Rocks,
Jtibbulpore (C.P.).. Not recorded by Duthie. BP 5720S.

PEDALIACEAE

*Martynia annua Linn. Syn. M. diandra Glox.

An erect branched annual, 0°3-0°9 m. high, flowers conspicuous and
rose-coloured. Fruit hard, woody and black, very curious looking with
prominent hooks. Native of Mexico. Naturalized. Loc.: Marble
Rocks, Jubbulpore (C.P.), Village Pathardi, Distt. Akola (Berar). BP
57614.

VERBENACEAE

*Lantana camara Linn. var. aculeata (Linn.) Moldenke

A straggling shrub with numerous curved prickles on the branches
and orange-coloured flowers. Native of tropical America and run wild.
The plant is most troublesome, and measures for its destruction are often
necessary though difficult. Loc. : Chikalda (762 m.), Distt. Amravati
(Berar). BP 57716, 57678.

*Stachytarpheta indica Vahl

A tall annual herb with long slender spikes of blue flowers. Native
of tropical America. Cultivated and getting naturalized. Loc.:
Chikalda (762 m.), Distt. Amravati (Berar). BP 57812.

Clerodendrum infortunatum Linn.

A shrub 0°9-2°5 m. high. Flowers white tinged with pink. Loc. :
Chikalda (762 m.), Distt. Amravati (Berar). BP 57814.

LABIATAE

Colebrookia oppositifolia Sm.

A shrub 1:2-1°5 m. high with white flowers in paniculate spikes. This
plant has been included by Witt (1908) in his list on the authority of

PLANT RECORDS FROM THE CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR 461

Brandis (1874). We found this plant quite common on the hills near
Chikalda (762 m.), Distt. Amravati (Berar). BP 57714.

Ocimum americanum Linn. Syn. O. canum Sims.

An erect herbaceous annual with a characteristic aroma. Flowers
small, white. Loc. : Jalgaon-Jamod, Distt. Buldana (Berar). B 66050.

*Hyptis suaveolens Poit.

A tall rigid, sweet-smelling herb with 4-angled rough-haired stem.
Flowers collected in heads in the axils of leaves small and blue in colour.
Native of tropical America and West Indies, run wild in C.P. and Berar.
Loc.: Ramtek (C.P.), Nagpur, Achalpur Camp, Distt. Amravati
(Berar). BP 57479, 57424.

AMARANTHACEAE

*Alternanthera pungens H.B.K. Nov. Gen. et Sp. ii, 206 (1817); A.
echinata Sm. in Rees Cyclop. n. 10 Xxx1x (1819)

A diffusely branched prostrate herb. Flowers small much com-
pressed and chaffy. This plant comes from tropical America and is getting
naturalized along roadsides and waste places in Berar. Loc. : Jalgaon-
Jamod, Distt. Buldana (Berar); Raundala, Distt. Akola (Berar) ;
Marble Rocks, Jubbulpore (additional locality for M.P.). B 66005,
66070, 70373.

*Gomphrena celosioides Jacq.

A diffusely much-branched annual. The branches are at first pros-
trate and then ascending and terminating in characteristic, stout, white
spikes. Native of central America. A recently introduced weed. Loc. :
Chikalda (762 m.), Distt. Amravati (Berar) ; Nagpur. BP 57804, 70691.
Celosia argentea Linn.

An erect, glabrous, branched herbaceous annual. The flowers are
pinkish at first and then becoming glistening white. Loc.: Village
Pathardi, Distt. Akola (Berar). BP 57615.

CHENOPODIACEAE
Basella rubra Linn.
A glabrous succulent climbing herb with small white or red flowers in

spikes, the peduncle often becoming thickened. Common in hedges
of fields. Loc. : Village Pathardi, Distt. Akola (Berar). B 66119.

EUPHORBIACEAE
Acalypha indica Linn.

Annual erect herb about 0°3-0°7 m. high, flowers in numerous, lax,
erect, elongate axillary spikes. Loc. : Achalpur Camp, Distt. Amravati
(Berar). BP 57842.

462

Tragia inyolucrata Linn.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

An evergreen climbing hispid herb with stinging pede variable in

foliage. Loc. :

Nagpur, Ramtek (C.P.) and Village Pathardi, Distt.

Akola (Berar). BP 57330, 57476, 66154.

“Jatropha gossypifolia Linn.

A small dark-coloured shrub with soft wood and reddish flowers.
Native of Brazil and now naturalized on roadsides and waste places.

Loc. : Nagpur. B 70597.

PONTEDERIACEAE

*Eichhornia crassipes Solms.
Native of Brazil.

A beautiful aquatic herb with violet-blue flowers.

Loc. : Lakes and ponds in Jubbulpore (M.P.).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is grateful to Prof. K. N. Kaul, F.L.s., Director, National
Botanic Gardens, Lucknow, for facilities of work and to Rev. Fr. H.
Santapau, Director, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, for his construc-
tive suggestions and for going through the manuscript.

REFERENCES

BALAPURE, K. M. (1959): Flora of
New Forest, Dehra Dun with special
reference to indigenous species. Ind.

For. 85 : 339-351.
———— (1959): Tour Report of
M.P. (Unpublished).

Bor, N. L., & RAIZADA, M. B. (1954) :
Some beautiful Indian climbers and
shrubs. Bombay.

BRANDIS, D. (1874): Forest Flora of
_North-west and Central India. London.

CookE, T. (1901): The Flora of the
Presidency of Bombay. London.

** GRAHAM, R. J. D. (1911) : List of
wild plants found on the Nagpur and
Telankheri farms. Nagpur.

(1913) : Notes on a collect-
ing tour at Ramtek, C.P. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 22: 237-241.

Hooker, J. D. (1872-97) :
British India 1-7. London.

Hote, R. S. (1904): A contribution
to the forest flora of Jubbulpore Division,
C.P. Ind. For. 30: 499-514, 566-592.

Haines, H. H. (1912-14) : List of
trees, shrubs and economic herbs of the
Southern Forest Circle of the Central
Provinces. Ind. For. 38 : 495-509, 1912 ;
39 : 49-69, 1913; 40: 194-229, 264-283,
330-355, 392-403, 429-449, 472-502, 1914.

(1916): Descriptive List of
Trees, Shrubs and Economic Herbs of

Flora of

** Not consulted.

the southern circle, Central Provinces.
Allahabad.

HEWETSON, C. E. (1951) : Preparation
of a flora for Madhya Pradesh and the
central parts of the Indian Union. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50: 431-433.

MiraAsHI, M. V. (1954) : Studies in
the Hydrophytes of Nagpur. J. Indian
bot. Soc. 33: 299-308.

——— (1959): New plant Re-
cords from Nagpur. Proc. 46th. Indian
Sci. Congr. Part III (Abstracts): 286.

RAIZADA, M. B. (1935-39) : Recently
introduced or otherwise imperfectly
known plants from the Upper Gangetic
Plain. J. Indian bot. Soc. 14: 339-48,
1935; 15: 149-67, 1936; Indian For.
Rec., "Bot. 516)< 22: 36, 1939.

SEBASTINE, K. M., & BALKRISHNAN,
N. P. (1963): A contribution to the flora
of North-eastern M.P. Jnd. For. 89:
487-491 ; 522-539.

Tiwarl, S. D. N. (1954): The grasses
of Madhya Pradesh. Jnd. For. 80: 601-
611, 681-689.

———— (1955): The grasses of
Madhya Pradesh. .Jnd. For. 81: 191-200.

Witt, D. O. (1908): ‘List of Trees,
Shrubs and Climbers and other Plants of
Economic Importance found in the Berar
Forest Circle of the Central Provinces,
Nagpur’, in Forest Flora of the Berar
Circle. Government Press, Nagpur.

Reproductive Behaviour of the Indian
Spike-tailed Paradise Fish,
Macropodus cupanus (Cuv. & Val.)!

AND

CHARLES H. SOUTHWICK

Department af Pathobiology, The Johns Hopkins University

(With two plates and a text-figure)

INTRODUCTION

This paper presents descriptive and quantitative data on the sexual
behaviour of the Indian spike-tailed paradise fish, Macropodus cupanus,
in laboratory aquaria. The life history and early development of M.
cupanus has been described by Raj (1916), Norman (1936), Jones (1940),
and Padmanabhan (1955). No detailed quantitative data are available,
however, on the reproductive behaviour of this species.

M. cupanus is an anabantid fish occurring naturally along the Malabar
and Coromandel coasts of south India. According to Hervéy & Hems
(1963), it also occurs in Ceylon, Malay peninsula, and Sumatra. It
is a small fish, adults reaching a maximum length of about 6cm. Males
are slightly larger than females. They occur in all types of freshwater :
tanks, lakes, ditches, and streams, even in slightly brackish water. Their
most typical habitats are wet rice paddy-fields and village tanks or ponds.
They are capable of living in foul waters which are deficient in oxygen.
They frequent thick vegetation or hide under stones or in crevices along
pond edges. They are perennial breeders and the males build ‘ bubble
nests. They are carnivorous feeders and are considered valuable mos-
quito larvivores (J ones 1940). |

1 This research was supported by Grant GB-2501 from the United States National
Science Foundation to The Johns Hopkins University and by Public Health Service
Grant GM-11326-05 from the National Institutes of Health to The Johns Hopkins
Center for Medical Research and Training. We are indebted to Dr. J. L. Bhaduri,
Head, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, and Dr. F. B. Bang, Chairman,
Department of PAO OIORy The Johns Hopkins University, for administrative
support.

464 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol..62 (3)
MATERIALS AND METHODS

The fish used in this study were wild-trapped in south India and were
obtained through a Calcutta tropical fish dealer. When brought to the
laboratory most of them were immature, in the size range of 2 to 4 cm.
The fishes were fed with dry powdered daphnia and dry ‘ TRADIS’ fish
food twice a day and with live tubifex worms once a day. Vallisnaria
spiralis (domestic variety) was planted in all the breeding tanks. The
tanks were lighted with 25 watt electric bulbs from 9 a.m.to5p.m. Over-
head lights were kept on during working hours. The water temperature
of the tanks was kept between 75° F. and 85° F. Most of the tanks used
for observing reproductive behaviour were of 2.5 gallon capacity (measur-
ing 30x 2020 cm.). Seven-gallon tanks (46 x 25x25 cm.) were used
as general holding and maturing tanks. The tanks were cleaned twice a
week. The fish compositions of the tanks were intentionally varied.
Sometimes a mature male was first introduced in the tank and one or two
mature females were added afterwards before or after completion of the
nest by the male. Sometimes a single mature pair was introduced in the
tank together.

Fifty matings have been observed, and precise data have been
recorded on 44 of them. This includes data on total duration of mating
time, total number of eggs, number and duration of enfoldings! (copu-
lations), number of eggs released per enfolding, and interval between
enfoldings for each mating. The 44 matings studied in detail included
2128 separate enfoldings.

RESULTS g

In this discussion reproductive behaviour of the fish will be considered
under 3 headings : Pre-mating, Mating, and Post-mating Behaviour.

PRE-MATING BEHAVIOUR

This period extends from the beginning of courtship display between
male and female and ends just before enfolding occurs.

Nest building by the male

M. cupanus males, like all other bubble nest building anabantids, build
a bubble nest at the water surface which consists of very small bubbles
heaped together. In our laboratory tanks, most of the nests were built
at one corner of the tank and in few cases included floating leaf blades.
Nest building indicates physiological maturity of the male (Goodrich

2 The term ‘ enfolding’ is used rather than * copulation ’ for two reasons: (1) to
agree with the terminology of Forselius (1957), and (2) because fertilization is external.

REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR OF MACROPODUS CUPANUS = 465

& Taylor 1934). The males usually take 15 to 2 hours to build a nest of
about 4 cm. diameter and maximum height of 1 cm. The mechanism of
building a nest involved the fish taking air in its mouth from the water
surface, mixing it with mucus to form a froth, and then blowing several
small bubbles which adhere together. This process is repeated many
times and gradually a nest takes shape. Nest building is hastened in the
presence of a mature female, and also by increased water temperature
(Forselius 1957). The nests observed in our laboratory tanks were much
smaller than those observed by Jones (1940) and Padmanabhan (1955)
in the paddy-fields, which measured about 8 cm. to 13 cm. in diameter and
4 cm. in height.

Male responses towards the female

After completing the nest the male makes Fae trips to different parts
of the tank apparently looking for a female, and returns to the nest
quickly. If the male does not find a female for a long time, he does not
take care of the nest and the nest breaks down.

When a mature female is in the tank the male will swim towards her
and will butt her on the abdomen and on the fins with his snout. He
will then swim back to the nest. He may on occasions stop on the way
and look back as if to see whether the female is following him. This
behaviour has been described for the genus Macropodus in general by
Forselius (1957), and has been called ‘ leading to nest ’ movement of the
male. At this time the male displays erected fins, especially the tail fin.
If the female is receptive she will follow the male but if the female is not
receptive she will ignore him. Under this circumstance the male be-

comes aggressive towards the female and will usually chase and bite her.

Males without any nest are to some extent indifferent to immature
females but will follow, rub, and butt a receptive female on the abdomen
with the snout.

During sexual excitement the body colour of the male turns slightly
dark, eyes and pelvic fins become red to orange, and the black spot at the
base of the tail fin disappears.

Female responses towards the male

An immature female is usually indifferent to males either with or
without nest. An incompletely mature female may start courtship dis-
plays with a male with nest. A mature female, when meeting a male
without a nest, behaves peculiarly—she waves her body and moves
randomly away from the male (sometimes facing the glass of the
aquarium). It appears to be an expression of behavioural uncertainty.
When a receptive female meets a male with nest she suddenly assumes a
dull dark colour, her eyes become dark, the spines of the pelvic fins be-
come orange, and the black spot at the base of the tail fin disappears and
turns white. All of these changes occur in approximately 10 seconds,

466 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)-

- .-When both individuals are mature either sex can take the initiative for
-mating. Usually the sex whose reproductive ‘tempo’! is higher takes
the initiative to breed (Forselius 1957). If the female reproductive
.“ tempo ’ is higher than that of the male she will proceed to the male under
the nest and start waving her body in a head-down posture at an oblique
plane. The male then starts circling movements around her body.
Occasionally the female may exhibit head-down posture and body-
waving movement at a lower level of water. Sometimes the female may
rise up to the water surface at a distance from the nest and, after taking
air from the surface, swim directly under the nest in an are and display
head-down, body-waving posture under the nest. |
If these displays occur outside the nest the male makes a few circling
movements around the female and then swims to the nest. The female
normally follows him. Now the sexes engage themselves in circling
movements under the nest. They move side by side in two circles—the
female in the inner circle and the male in the outer circle moving in the
same direction. There may be side dashes between the circling pair but
not as vigorous as would be expected in an aggressive encounter. All
circling movements do not lead to enfolding. The female after initial
circling may settle down on the gravel and remain quiet for 5 to
10 minutes. At this time the male swims over to her and rubs her on the
abdomen with the snout and shortly returns back to the nest. After 5
to 10 minutes the female responds to one of these ° leading to nest ’ move-
ments of the male and goes to the’nest. The circling movements then
start again.

MATING BEHAVIOUR

Before actual enfolding the male and the female move in circles in
the same direction. Sometimes the male moves faster and this brings
the female’s head region to the middle of the male’s body. The position
is then appropriate for enfolding. Simultaneously the male bends his
body in the mid-region, the female begins a partial rotation to a lateral
position in the water, and the male slides around to the ventral side of the
female. The anterior portion of the female including her vent is- then
enfolded by the male’s body. At this time the male’s-head and tatt fin
may touch on the dorsal side of the female. The female then rotates
further and is turned upside down (Plate I). The pair usually remain in
that posture throughout the duration of the énfolding. Sometimes the
female is kept flat on her side at the time of enfolding. The postures :of
enfolding are > basically similar in maiy species of anabantids. They-are

ola & ‘Tempo ’ is a term used by Aronson ss) in a way comparable t to the pajého:
logical terms ‘ drive’ or ‘arousal’,

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc. PLATE I

Circling

(male in backgrourd)

Beginning of enfolding

(female rotates on side, male folds
around antero-ventral portion of
female)

Enfolding and spawning

(female upside down, male arched
dorsally over female as eggs emerge)

Mating postures in Macropodus cupanus

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT, HIsT. SOc. . PLATE II

80
4

ececsreee AVE. NO. OF ENFOLDINGS PER 10 MINUTES

05 oO --e--e-- AVE, DURATION OF ENFOLDINGS PER
Cp (g 10 MINUTES
jee) —e—e— AVE. NO. OF EGGS PER10 MINUTES
bo oe e de
Oo e e

S on
jad e
(aa 3
es é :
= 2 .
Z, .
QO A
Zz. ‘Nee Os i e
Se

sen *e° @.
teak = 10 011 O Orr, g 1282+ @\
5 10 15 20 25 30 35.738

UNITS OF 10 MINUTES

_ Mating pattern of Macropodus cupanus in terms of 10-minute
units. Based upon averages of 44 matings.

NUMBER OF ENFOLDINGS

467

REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR OF MACROPODUS CUPANUS

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468 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

accurately portrayed for Macropodus opercularis by Innes (1956) and for
Colisa lalia by Forselius (1957) and these are very similar to M. cupanus.
The duration of enfolding in M. cupanus varied from 5 to 22 sec. with
an average of 12°8 seconds (Table). Enfoldings occurred at an average
interval of 3°4 minutes.

Sometimes in the circling movement the female moves faster and the
head region of the male is at the tail region of the female. Now, while
the male continues to move, the female stops, so that the mid-body region
of the male comes to the head region of the female and enfolding occurs
as usual. | ie

In the enfolded condition, there is no fin movement of the pair. The
male’s anal fin is curved inward and the female’s body takes the form of a
shallow ‘S’. After a couple of seconds the grip of the male is slightly
relaxed. The pair usually float in the enfolded condition but at the
beginning of mating, in the first few enfoldings, they sink slowly down-
wards in the enfolded position. The eggs emerge from the cloaca at the
anterior end of the base of the anal fin. The release of eggs and sper-
matozoa usually occurs within the first 6-8 seconds of enfolding. The
number of enfoldings per mating varied from 26 to 102, with an average
of 48:4 (Table). The duration of total mating was usually between
2 to 5 hours, and averaged 169°5 minutes. Spawning took place during
day-time and more precisely between 11 a.m. to 3 p.m. In the first
several enfoldings no eggs are extruded, then the number of eggs gradually
increases reaching a maximum in the first half of the mating. There-
after there is a gradual decrease in the number of eggs until no more are
extruded (Plate II). An average of 14°1 eggs were extruded per enfold-
ing with a total average of 646°7 eggs per mating (Table).

After extrusion, the eggs sink slowly in the water and both the parents
pick them up into the mouth. The eggs are mixed with mucus
and * blown’ upwards into the bubble nest. The male is more active
than the female in picking up the eggs. Usually the eggs at lower levels
of water are picked up first and hence very few eggs drop-to the bottom.
When no more eggs are extruded, the pair still carry on enfolding for
several times and then the male suddenly chases and drives the female
out of the nest territory. The female does not leave the nest readily and
on occasions a fight may occur between the pair. The female is always
driven out of the nest territory, however, and she is chased into a corner
of the tank away from the nest. By this time the female regains
her normal colour. The female from time to time continues to swim up
to the nest hesitantly, but is driven off by the male.

The Table at p. 467 indicates a seasonal influence upon the length and
productivity of mating behaviour. There was reduced fecundity in
December and January in comparison with November. Mating in
November with a mean mid-morning temperature of 80°1° F. averaged

REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR OF MACROPODUS CUPANUS — 469

56°7 enfoldings per mating, an average mating time of 195°2 minutes, and
a total average egg production of 698°9 eggs per mating. December and
January, with mean mid-morning temperature of 75°5° F. and 75°8° F.
respectively, showed reductions in the number of enfoldings per mating
(to 41°3 and 40°1 respectively), the length of mating time (to 151°'7 and
140 minutes respectively), and the egg production per mating (to 608°7 and
588°2 respectively). There were no significant monthly differences in the
average eggs per enfolding, the average length of enfolding, and the
average interval between enfoldings. The latter figures seem to be fairly
constant (3°4, 3°9, 3:2) with a very small standard error for the over-all
mean (3°38 + 0°01).

Our data cannot determine whether these monthly changes in the
length and productivity of mating are primarily due to temperature
changes, day length changes, or some other factor.

Text-figure. Male in nest guarding postures

POST-MATING BEHAVIOUR

After driving the female away from the nest the male engages in
protecting the nest and the brood. He adds new bubbles, re-arranges

470 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

the eggs and chases off intruders. While guarding the nest, the male
usually faces the corner of the tank and his tail may extend beyond the
perimeter of the nest. At this time all the fins of the males are fully
extended. Sometimes the male takes a reverse position under the nest,
i.e. he faces outwards and his posterior end lies beneath the nest. The
male increases the nest area by blowing more bubbles.

Hesitant intruders are immediately chased off by the male as in Badis
badis (Barlow 1962). But when the intruders come to the nest without
stopping the male becomes alarmed and blocks the intruders’ way to the
nest by placing his body in their path of movement. Then a fight occurs
and’ the intruder is driven away. In every instance observed, the
male was dominant in his own nest territory.

The embryos hatch approximately 32 hours after the eggs are laid. The
newly hatched larvae cling to the nest in a vertical plane. Larvae which
move out of the nest or drop from it are immediately picked up by the
male in his mouth and put back to the nest. As the larvae grow older,
they move about more freely and are picked up by the male as usual.
When the young fry are 3 to 4 days old, they swim about rather freely,
and at this stage they are usually eaten by the male, if he is not removed.
Padmanabhan (1955) stated that males leave the nest in search of
food when the larvae are 3 days old—this possibly occurs in natural
conditions and not in laboratory aquaria. We have noticed that while
guarding the nest the male takes no interest in the food supplied for 2
to 4 days after hatching.

DISCUSSION

Breeding Season

Thomas (1870) stated that Macropodus cupanus breeds during May
and June. Jones (1940) collected eggs in January, February, May,
September, October, and November and supposed that the fish may be
perennial breeders. Padmanabhan (1955) also felt that M. cupanus
breeds throughout the year. We are in accord with Jones and
Padmanabhan and have observed mating in unheated aquaria through-
out the winter months in Calcutta from October 1964 to March 1965.

Mating Behaviour

Courtship behaviour is an expression of the level of sexual excitability
of the individual and it represents a co-ordination of behavioural activities
and physiological processes of both sexes so that a well-synchronized
spawning results. In general, the mating behaviour of M. cupanus is
similar to that of M. opercularis, Colisa sp., Trichogaster, and several
other anabantid fishes. The following discussion will consider some
specific similarities and differences between M. cupanus and other fish.

REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR OF MACROPODUS CUPANUS 471

At mating time most anabantids exhibit colour changes in both sexes.
In M. cupanus, the males assume slightly dark colour and the females
become completely dark including the eyes. Darkening of the eyes
during sexual excitement is also seen in Lebistes reticulatus (Baerends,
Brouwer, & Waterbolk 1955).

In the green sunfish, Apomotis cyanellus, the eyes turn black when the
fish loses an aggressive encounter (Greenberg 1947). In the climbing
perch, Anabas testudineus, males turn deep black during sexual excite-
ment (Mookerjee & Mazumder 1946). In M. opercularis there is expan-
sion of melanophores on the ventral and lateral sides in both sexes, and
colours darken or become more intense (Forselius 1957).

Fishes of the genera Colisa, Betta, Macropodus, and Trichogaster are
’ well-known bubble nest builders amongst the anabantid fishes but nest
materials often vary. Macropodus cupanus males depend on mucus
bubbles, anchored to floating vegetable materials like Pistia, Sylvinia,
and Lemora plants and have never been found to collect sand grains,
detritus, faeces, etc. from the bottom as in Colisa lalia and Trichogaster
leeri (Forselius 1957). Although mating and spawning usually take place
after the completion of the nest by the male, mating and nest building in
M. cupanus may go on simultaneously. Occurrence of spawning in the
absence of a nest has also been reported in C. /alia, C. labiosa, Osphro-
_nemus goramy, T. leeri, and T. trichopterus (Forselius 1957). After
completion of the nest, the males of most anabantids remain motionless
under the nest facing outwards. This has been termed by Forselius as
“nest posting’ of the male. Nest posting of the male has also been
observed in Colisa and Trichogaster. Badis badis males remain motion-
less at the entrance of their burrows (nests) (Barlow 1962).

The leading to nest movement in M, cupanus males is similar to that of
C. lalia, C. labiosa, T. leeri, and M. opercularis. Betta males show semi-
erected fins while leading the female to the nest. Badis badis males on
the other hand settle down under the nest at the sight of a receptive
female. If M. cupanus males fail to conduct the female to the nest, some
will nevertheless persist and eventually succeed. Tinbergen (1953) called
this ‘persuasion’. Persuasion has also been reported in C. /Jalia
(Forselius 1957). Many males, however, instead of exhibiting persua-
sion become aggressive towards the females which do not respond to
leading. Aggressiveness of males under this circumstance has been
reported by Forselius (1957) in C. lalia, T. leeri, and T. trichopterus and
by Barlow (1962) in Badis badis. We have not observed males leading
the female to non-existing nests, as reported for Pygosteus pungitius by
Morris (1952). Leading to the nest movement has been described in
_ sunfishes by Breder (1936) but he did not mention the manner of leading.
While approaching males under the nest, females of M. cupanus, like

472 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

those of T. leeri, M. opercularis, and C. fasciata, swim oe head pointed
downwards.

When mating has actually begun, each successful enfolding seems to
stimulate the male to chase off intruders. Enfoldings in which no eggs
are released and no (?) ejection of sperm occurs have been termed by
Forselius as ‘ pseudo-spawning ’. Pseudo-spawnings occur several times
at the beginning and end of mating.

The upside down posture of the female also occurs in C. /alia, Betta
splendens, and M. opercularis but is lacking in C. fasciata. Betta males
take the form of an inverted ‘ U’ while enfolding. Padmanabhan (1955)
stated that spawning in M. cupanus occurs only in day-time. We agree
with this and have observed that most matings take place between 11 a.m.
and 3 p.m. In contrast, most of the matings in A. festudineus occurred
at night (Mookerjee & Mazumder 1946).

A complete mating cycle in M. cupanus lasts from 2 to 5 hours which
is a wider range than that stated by Padmanabhan (1955). The number of
eggs released in each enfolding averaged 14:1 with variation from 1 to 65
(Table). This is similar to egg production in C. /alia, C. labiosa, and
C. fasciata. Jones (1940) stated that the eggs are shot up towards the
nest by the force of ejaculation and they float with other eggs. Norman
(1936) stated that the eggs are light and they float upwards as a result of
buoyancy and not through any intervention by the parents.
Padmanabhan (1955) stated that the eggs are picked up only by the male
and blown upwards into the nest. But we have observed that the eggs
sink and are picked up by both the parents and blown into the nest.
Mookerjee & Mazumder (1946) stated that the eggs of A. testudineus
are shot up by the force of ejaculation and float on the surface.

Duration of enfolding averaged 12°8 seconds with variations from 6
to 22 seconds, which is similar to that of Jones’s (1940) observation.
Jones (1940) stated that the number of eggs laid by a female is about 300.
This was supported by Forselius (1957). Padmanabhan stated that on
an average 400 eggs are laid by a female but we observed an average of
646°7 eggs per mating, with variation from 299 to 973 (Table).

The interval between 13 successive spawnings of 7 females averaged
14 days with variation from 7 to 25 days. This agrees with
Padmanabhan’s (1955) findings of 12 to 15 days.

After the termination of oviposition the male spontaneously becomes
aggressive to the female and chases her away from the nest. Most
previous workers including Jones (1940), Padmanabhan (1955), and Innes
(1956) stated that if the female is not removed from the tank after the
termination of spawning she is in most cases killed by the male. Our
observations in laboratory aquaria showed that the female is not killed.
Forselius (1957) reported that males and females of C. /Jalia and Betta
splendens can be kept together without much injury. We kept and bred

REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR OF MACROPODUS CUPANUS = 473

a pair of M. cupanus in a tank thrice successively and there was no injury
to the female except that her tail fin was partially damaged. All the
fry were eaten, however.

Aronson (1949) stated that eggs of oviparous teleosts are shed in a
flaccid state but rapidly become hard and turgid, i.e. they ‘ water harden ’
(Breder 1934). Hence, to insure fertilization the male must deposit sperm
over the eggs within a very short time. In accord with Aronson we are
of opinion that egg-laying and fertilization of eggs in M. cupanus take
place within first 5-8 seconds of enfolding.

Polygamy in M. cupanus has been observed in natural conditions by
- Padmanabhan (1955), but we have not observed polygamy in aquaria. A
receptive female was introduced in a tank with a male guarding a brood,
there was no mating and the female died in ‘egg bound’ condition.
Tavolga (1954) reported polygamy in Bathygobius soporator.

SUMMARY

This paper presents descriptive and quantitative data on the re-
productive behaviour of Macropodus cupanus in laboratory aquaria in
Calcutta.

Reproductive behaviour has been analysed in three divisions: (1)
Pre-mating behaviour, which includes sexual displays of both sexes prior
to enfolding or copulation, (2) Mating behaviour, which includes the
processes of enfolding, egg deposition, and fertilization, and (3) Post-
mating behaviour, which includes behavioural interactions between the
sexes after enfolding and during parental care.

A total of 50 matings have been observed with complete and accurate
data on 44 of them, involving 2128 enfoldings. The average number of
enfoldings per mating was 48°4 ; average duration of mating time 169°9
minutes ; average number of eggs per mating 646°7 ; average number of
eggs per enfolding 14:1 ; average duration of enfolding 12°8 seconds ;
and average interval between successive enfoldings 3°4 minutes. Thirteen
successive matings of seven different females occurred at an average
interval of 14 days.

REFERENCES

ARONSON, L. R. (1949): An analysis the Asian teleost Badis badis. IV.
of reproductive behaviour in the mouth Sexual behaviour. Copeia 2: 346-360.
breeding cichlid fish Tilapia macrocephala BREDER, C. M. (1934): An_ experi-
(Bleeker). Zoologica 34: 133-153. mental study of the reproductive habits

BAERENDS, G. P., BROUWER, R., & and life history of the Cichlid fish, Aequi-
WATERBOLK, H. TJ. (1955): Ethological dens latifrons (Steindachner). Zoologica

studies on Lebistes reticulatus (Peters). 18: 1-42.
I. An analysis of the male courtship pat- —— (1936): The reproductive
tern. Behaviour 8 : 249-334. habits of the North American sunfishes

BarLow, G. W. (1962): Ethology of (Centrarchidae). Zoologica 21 : 1-48.

474

ForseLius, S. (1957): Studies of
Anabantid fishes. I. A qualitative des-
cription of the reproductive behaviour in
territorial species investigated under
laboratory conditions with special regard
to genus Colisa. Zool. Bid. Fran. Uppsala
32 : 93-302.

GoopricH, H. B., & TAYLOR, H. C.
(1934): Breeding reactions in Betta
splendens. Copeia 4: 165.

GREENBERG, B. (1947): Some rela-
tions between territory, social hierarchy
and leadership in the green sunfish (Lepo-
mis cyanellus). Physiol. Zool. 20: 267-
299.

Hervey, G. F., & Hems, J. (1963):
Freshwater tropical aquarium fishes.
Spring Books, London. 432 pp.

INNES, W. T. (1956) : Exotic aquarium
fishes. Innes Publishing Co., Philadel-
phia. 541 pp

JONES, S. (1940) : Notes on the breed-
ing habits and early development of
Macropodus cupanus (Cuv. and Val.) with
special reference to the cement glands of
the early larvae. Rec. Indian Mus. 42:
269-296.

KULKARNI, C. V. (1943): Breeding
habits and early stages of the Gourami
(Osphronemus goramy Lacépéde). J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 44: 233-243.

MOookeERJEE, H. K., & MAZUMDER,
S.R. (1946) : On the life history, breed-
ing and rearing of Anabas testudineus

‘Instinct in Animals.

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Morris, D. (1952): Homosexuality
in the ten-spined stickleback. Behaviour
4 : 233-261.

Norman, J. R. (1936): A History of
Fishes. London.

PADMANABHAN, K. G. (1955): Breed-
ing habits and early embryology of
Macropodus cupanus (Cuv. and Val.).
Bull. Cent. Res. Inst. University of
Travancore, Trivandrum 4 (1), (Series C) :

RAJ, S. B. (1916) : Notes on the fresh

water fishes of Madras. Rec. Indian
Mus. 12.
SHAW, EE. (1962): Environmental

conditions and the appearance of sexual
behaviour in the platyfish. In ‘ Roots of

Behavior’, edit. by E. Bliss. Harper
Bros., New York.
TAVOLGA, W. N. (1954): Reproduc-

tive behaviour in the gobiid fish, Bathy-
gobius soporator. Bull. Amer. Mus. nat.
Hist. 104 : 427-460.
Tuomas, H. S. (1870): Report on
Pisciculture, South Canara—Madras.
THORPE, W. H. (1956): Learning and
Harvard University
493 pp.
(1953): Social Be-
Methuen, London.

Press, Cambridge.
TINBERGEN, N.
haviour in Animals.

150 pp.

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‘005 “LSIH “LVN AVENOg ‘N#aor

The Snakes of the Arabian
Peninsula and Socotra

N. L. CoRKILL AND J. A. COCHRANE

(With a map)

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION e Ae 3 i, Be WATS
SYSTEMATIC LIsT __... cif si of. Re i. 34/6
MATERIAL AND LITERATURE ae ee oe Br .. 478
TAXONOMIC AND FIELD DATA .. ag s or os 479)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS... | <6: - ne e em OOS

REFERENCES irs S04 i a Se .. 3504

INTRODUCTION

In the years 1948-1961, the senior author, while working in Saudi
Arabia and the Aden Protectorate, took what interest duties permitted
in the local snakes. A number of specimens were left in fairly repre-
sentative collections in the Biological Department of Aden College and
in the two Health Services Training Centres, situated one in Makhzan
Hospital in the Western Aden Protectorate (now the Federation of the
Arab Amirates of the South) and the other in Mukalla Hospital in the
Qu’aiti State of the Eastern Aden Protectorate. A number were also
sent to the British Museum, where a more systematic examination was
possible. The data resulting are recorded in this paper. Many speci-
mens were too mutilated for complete scale counts to be made. ;

While consulting the literature it seemed useful to review that relating
to distribution and the vernacular names of those snakes occurring in the
Arabian Peninsula as a whole, taking the 30th Parallel as an approximate
but convenient northern limit, and including Sinai. The seas surround-
ing the Peninsula are included for the sea snakes. The main interest of
the paper relates however to the additional records from Western Saudi
Arabia, the Yaman, and Aden Territory including the island of Socotra.

The collection of specimens was made largely through the staff of
various health services in rural areas and as a result a considerable
amount of information was obtained about vernacular names and folk

belief and practice relating to snakes and snake-poisoning. Apart from
7

476 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

clear-cut local applications of the names of snakes, this traditional
material will be dealt with elsewhere. 3

Unless otherwise stated, colour when mentioned refers to that of
specimens preserved in alcohol or formalin or both. An unhappily
large number of specimens are necessarily shown from ‘ Aden Pro-
tectorate ’ because the labels giving more precisely the localities in which |
they were collected were lost or mutilated in repeated packings.

Physiographically, the Arabian Peninsula shows much uniformity,
that of a desert of rock and sand, scarred in larger and smaller areas with
volcanic residues in the shape of extinct craters and fields of lava. The
rocky features occur both as small hills and in major systems, the latter
most notably in the mountains of the Yaman with peaks rising to 12,000
feet, which offer a marked contrast in vegetation and humidity with most
of the Peninsula. In central Arabia the arid Jabal Tawaik system is a
dominant feature. Parallel with the southern coast the mountains con-
tinue the Yaman system through the Hadhramaut complex to reach the
relatively fertile Jabal Qara and the hills of Oman.

Apart from much of the Yaman, Jabal Qara, isolated areas of culti-
vation and oases, the Peninsula is characteristically arid, a large part of
the south-east constituting the desert known as the Rub-al-Khali, 1.e.
the ‘Empty Quarter’. Where oases and cultivation exist, they are
watered naturally by springs or floods, or with man’s intervention by
means of wells, dams, and the bunding of storm water.

Rainfall is largely sporadic and localized, and may be scanty, or so
temporarily violent that large watercourses, wadis, may be heavily flooded
and damage to life, cultivation, and property may result. The winter
is cool and at the higher altitudes the temperature may approach freezing
point. The summer is relatively hot everywhere, in most places exceeding
at times 100°F.

Humidity is high on the coasts which are complexes of rock and sand;
reefs of rock and coral are common and lagoons, marsh, and estuarine
conditions occur in places where the main watercourses discharge their
occasional or perennial floods into the sea.

Urbanization does not seem to have had much effect on reptilian
ecology so far, for there are few really large towns or seaports apart from
Jiddah, Mecca, and Aden and even in these, snakes such as Coluber

rhodorhachis, Spalerosophis, Malpolon, and even Cerastes and Echis are
encountered.

SYSTEMATIC LIST
BOIDAE
1. £ryx colubrinus (Linnaeus)
2. Eryx jaculus (Linnaeus)
3. kryx jayakari Boulenger

THE SNAKES OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA AND SOCOTRA 477

COLUBRIDAE!

5. *Brachyophis revoili Mocquard
6. Coluber elegantissimus (Gunther)
7. Coluber gemonensis (Laurenti)
8. Coluber karelinii Brandt
9. Coluber nummifer Reuss
10. Coluber rhodorhachis (Jan)
11. Coluber rogersi Anderson
12. Coluber socotrae (Gunther)
13. Coluber thomasi Parker
14. Coluber variabilis (Boulenger)
15. Coluber ventromaculatus Gray
16. Coronella somalica Scortecci
17. Dasypeltis scabra (Linnaeus)
18. “Ditypophis vivax Gunther
19. Ejirenis arabica Haas
20. Eirenis coronella (Schlegel) i
21. *Lycophidion capense (Smith)
22. Lytorhynchus diadema (Duméril & Bibron) .
23. Lytorhynchus sinai Schmidt & Marx
24. *Malpolon moilensis (Reuss)
25. *Malpolon monspessulana (Hermann)
26. Natrix dubbiosii Scortecci
27. Philothamnus semivariegatus Smith
28. *Psammophis punctulatus Dumeéril & Bibron ©
29. *Psammophis schokari (Forskal)
30. Rhynchocalamus arabicus Schmidt
31. Rhynchocalamus melanocephalus (Jan)
32. Spalerosophis diadema cliffordi (Schlegel)
33. *Telescopus dhara (Forskal)
34. *Telescopus hoogstraali Schmidt & Marx
ELAPIDAE
35. Naja haje arabica Scortecci
36. Walterinnesia aegyptia Lataste
HYDROPHIDAE
37. Astrotia stokesii (Gray)
38. Enhydrina schistosa (Daudin)
39. Hydrophis cyanocinctus Daudin
40. Hydrophis fasciatus fasciatus (Schneider)
41.

The Opisthoglypha are marked with an asterisk.

Boaedon arabicus Parker

Hydrophis lapemoides (Gray)

478 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

42. Hydrophis mamillaris (Daudin)

43. Hydrophis ornatus ornatus (Gray)

44. Hydrophis spiralis spiralis (Shaw)

45. Lapemis curtus (Shaw)

46. Microcephalophis cantoris (Gunther)

47. Microcephalophis gracilis (Shaw)

48. Pelamis platurus (Linnaeus)

49. Praescutata viperina (Schmidt)
LEPTOTYPHLOPIDAE

50. Leptotyphlops burii (Boulenger)

51. Leptotyphlops filiformis (Boulenger) *

52. Leptotyphlops macrorhyncus (Jan)

53. Leptotyphlops macrura (Boulenger)

54. Leptotyphlops nursii (Anderson)

55. Leptotyphlops phillipsi Barbour

TYPHLOPIDAE
56. Typhlops braminus (Daudin)
57. Typhlops socotranus Boulenger
58. Typhlops vermicularis (Daudin)

VIPERIDAE

59. Atractaspis microlepidota andersoni Boulenger
60. Atractaspis engaddensis Haas

61. Bitis arietans (Merrem)

62. Cerastes cerastes (Linnaeus)

63. LEchis carinata pyramidum (Geoffroy St. Hilaire)
64. LEchis colorata Giinther

65. Pseudocerastes fieldi Schmidt

66. Pseudocerastes persicus (Duméril & Bibron)

67. Vipera lebetina (Linnaeus)

MATERIAL AND LITERATURE

A large proportion of the historic material contributing to this review
is in the British Museum (Natural History) having been collected by
travellers such as Burton from Midian, Blunt from the Hadhramaut, and
Thomas and Philby from southern and western Arabia, or by officials
and other workers in the country such as Jayakar, Yerbury, Nurse, and
Percival, from Muscat and Aden.

American Museums (Chicago and Harvard) have Cee maienee
from sources mostly in the northern and eastern areas and Italian
workers, notably Scortecci, have collected and recorded material from the _ |
Yaman.

THE SNAKES OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA AND SOCOTRA 479

Major organized expeditions have been: that of the British Museum
to south-west Arabia in 1937-1938 and the five to Socotra, of Balfour
in 1879-1880, Schweinfurth in 1881, that of the British and Liverpool
Museums in 1898, Steindachner’s visit to the island in 1899, and the
Oxford University Expedition of 1956. Of recent years the Desert Locust
Survey have sent specimens to the British Museum from various parts of
the Peninsula.

In the years 1948-1961 the senior author collected some 205 speci-
mens, or records of snakes seen dead or alive but not collected, in Saudi
Arabia or Aden Territory, apart from a few sent to him from the Yaman
and Muscat. Acknowledgements to most contributors from the field
are made below.

The literature covering the snake fauna of the Peninsula starts for-
mally with Forskal (1775, P. schokari), but the first comprehensive
compilation was that of Anderson (1896) an indispensable work of
reference and general enlightenment. The catalogues of Boulenger
(1893, 1894, and 1896) on the collections in the British Museum (Natural.
History) provide a yet broader basis for a starting point for any work
on Arabian, as indeed on all snakes.

Notable later contributions have been those of Barbour (1914) and
Schmidt (1933, 1939, 1953) on the Peninsula in general, Scortecci (1932)
and Scott (1947) on the Yaman, Parker (1930, 1931, 1932, 1933, 1938,
1941, and 1949) on south-west Arabia and Socotra on new species and
from a critical taxonomic standpoint, Haas (1943, 1957, and 1961), Haas &
Battersby (1959), Schmidt & Marx (1956) on the northern and eastern
snakes, Gunther (1881), Forbes (1903), Boulenger (1903), and
Steindachner (1903) on Socotran forms, and Smith (1926, 1943), and
Vols¢de (1939) on the sea snakes.

The writings of Abdullah Mansur (1911), Doughty (1921 ed.), Philby
(1939), Thomas (1932), Scott (1947), Dickson (1949), and Thesiger (1959),
with on-the-spot knowledge of Arabia contain facts of interest from the
field, 7

TAXONOMIC AND FIELD DATA

The snakes discussed in this paper are those recorded in the literature
as coming from the Arabian Peninsula, those preserved in the British
Museum, which have been collected in the area under discussion but not
previously reported, and a further 205 collected by the senior author.
Of these last 29 are from Saudi Arabia, and 176 from Aden Territory.
Of the 205, 99 are now in the British Museum.

The commonest snakes of the area are Coluber rhodorhachis and.
Spalerosophis diadema cliffordi, The commonest. poisonous snakes are

480 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 62 (3)

Cerastes cerastes and the Echis vipers, E. carinata being commoner than
E. colorata.

Some species have peripheral distribution only ; ;in the north such are
Eryx jaculus, Eryx colubrinus, Coluber elegantissimus, Coluber rogersi,
Coluber nummifer, Coluber ventromaculatus, Eirenis arabica, Eirenis
coronella, Lytorhynchus sinai, Malpolon monspessulana, Rhynchocalamus
melanocephalus, Telescopus hoogstraali, Leptotyphlops macrorhynchus,
Typhlops vermicularis, Atractaspis engaddensis, and Pseudocerastes fieldii,
and in the north-east bordering the Persian Gulf are Coluber karelinii
and Walterinnesia aegyptia. The Yaman has a record for Vipera
lebetina, an extrusion well south of its characteristic range. In the west
and south, species with more typically African distribution are Dasypeltis
scabra, Lycophidion capense, Philothamnus semivariegatus, Psammophis
punctulatus (a doubtful record), and Bitis arietans. So far as present re-
cords go, peculiar to the south are Rhynchocalamus arabicus, Coluber
thomasi, Leptotyphlops burii, Leptotyphlops nursii, and Atractaspis micro-
lepidota andersoni.

The snakes of Socotra are restrictedly endemic with the exception of
Echis colorata, represented by a single record with some doubt cast on
the locality of origin.

There are certain Arabic names for snakes occurring in many or all
Arab countries, found for the most part in standard Arabic dic-
tionaries. They thus deserve to be considered in some degree as
‘classical’. They may apply to snakes in general, in the sense of
‘serpent ’, or to categories of snakes that have obtrusive attributes such
as horns, or are notably small or large, or are vipers, or dangerously
-poisonous, or move very quickly, or burrow in the earth, or are thought
to do so.

In the general sense of ‘serpent’ are used hanash, tha’aban, and haiya
and, in the Hejaz and the Hasa area, dab. Of small snakes, um shibr =
‘of a span’ is used. Spotted snakes are commonly called raqta =
‘spotted’. Swift-moving whippy forms with no other outstanding
character are called zarrag = ‘the lanced’ or ‘ the projected ’, or some
variant of the same word. Snakes with burrowing habits are called
daffan = ‘ burier’ or some variant. In Abu Dhabi in the Trucial States
ghul = ‘demon’ is commonly used in addition to haiya and hanash,
though it seems pe 2 apply to the cobra.

The word afe=‘ viper’ has many variants and from Libya (where
liffa or laffa would seem to represent al afa) to Delhi and, especially
in Arabia, relates to the common, well-known and feared Echis and
Cerastes vipers. These last two groups of snakes, which produce a
rustling noise by rubbing their scales together while coiling about,
have also a number of colloquial mimetic names inspired by this noise,
and involving the sounds f or sh. Keimer.(1945) has discussed at length.

THE SNAKES OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA AND SOCOTRA 481

the relationship of the sound f to the Egyptian hieroglyph in the form of
the Cerastes vipers, horned or unhorned. Also the word afa would
appear to equate with the Hebrew epheh=‘ serpent’.

Parker (1931) has recorded from Dhufar several Shahari names for
snakes collected by Bertram Thomas ; one of these shaltum, it appears, is
possibly used of snakes in general. At Habarut on the Mahra mainland
the senior author collected the word araraidh, which appeared to be used
of a snake ina general sense but may bea corruption in form and an
application of the Arabic al araidh=‘the broad one’, that is the cobra,
forin Libya abu araidha is used of Naja haje. On Socotra, for ‘ snake’
in general in the Socotri tongue shudhim was said to be used.

The data given below unless otherwise stated refer to material from
within the Peninsula only, with a slight element of margin as regards the
northern species.

BOIDAE

Eryx colubrinus (Linnaeus)

Eryx thebaicus, Scortecci, 1932, p. 40, (Yaman, 1).

The species is marginal being common in Egypt and the northern
Sudan. :

Scale count. The scale range given by Boulenger (1893 p. 122)
for non-Arabian specimens is Sc. 47-53, V. 171-197, C. 19-28, A. 1.
Scortecci gives Sc. 55 at mid-body.

Eryx jaculus (Linnaeus)

Eryx jaculus Duméril & Bibron, 1844, p. 463, (Arabia, +) ; Anderson, 1896, pp.
70, 86, 90, (in litt.).

Scale count. The scale range in Boulenger (1893, p. 125) for Greece
to Afghanistan is Sc. 40-50, V. 165-200, C. 15-34, A. 1.

Eryx jayakari Boulenger

Eryx jayakari Boulenger, 1888, p. 508, (Muscat, 1) ; idem, 1893, p. 129, (in Jitt.) :
Anderson, 1896, pp. 82, 88, (in litt.) ; Parker, 1931, p. 514, Jahashi, Rub-al-Khali, 1) ;
idem, 1931 (a), p. 228, (in litt.); idem, 1932, p. 341, (in litt.); idem, 1938,
p. 481, (Southern Hejaz, +) ; Haas, 1957, p. 79, [Abqaig, Dhahran, Al Alat (oilfields);
Sharja, 15] ; idem, 1961, p. 19 (Abqaiq, Al Hasa, 2).

Records. The senior author collected specimens from Jiddah, Little
Aden, Nuqub in the Baihan area and Al Hazar and Shaq al Maatif near
Thamud. ; 5

Scale count. The scale count for the Arabian examples of this species
that have been recorded in the literature and taken from specimens in the
British Museum are Sc. 37-51, V. 158-184, C. 16-22, A. 1.

Coloration. The specimen taken in Little Aden was very much darker
than the specimens from Baihan and Thamud,

482. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

Vernacular names. Parker (1931a) records the name difen from the

Rub-al-Khali. This recalls the word dafn, ‘ burier’, of the Aden Protec-.

torate, which though more usually applied to the Echis snakes, may also
be applied to Eryx jayakari. In Baihan the snake was called badan and
badhan, suggestive of the Hebrew pethen = ‘ snake’ in general, and it
is of interest that there was formerly a Jewish community in Bathan.
Habitat. All the specimens were taken from sand.
Remarks. Two specimens that were handled made no attempt to
bite.

COLUBRIDAE

There have been 31 species and subspecies of the Family recorded
from the Peninsula, including 9 of the Opisthoglypha, the back-fanged
division. Certain snakes of this division are relatively large, have strik-
ing markings and are frequently encountered, and since they possess
fangs capable of inoculating venom and producing appreciable, albeit
not lethal, reactions they tend to attract specifically applicable folk names.

Boaedon arabicus Parker

Boaedon arabicus Parker, 1930, p. 594 (Al Kubar in Haushabi area, 5) ; Scortecci
1932, p. 41 (Sana in Yaman, 5).

Boaedon lineatus arabicus Parker, 1941, p. 4 (Jabal Harir, 1) ; idem, 1949, p. 51
(in litt.) ; Schmidt, 1953, p. 260 (Yaman, 1). A

Records. The senior author’s collection included one specimen from

either the Yaman or the Western Aden Protectorate.

Scale count. The scale count range of the Arabian specimens from
the literature and of the specimens in the British Museum is Sc. 27-33,
V. 220-250, C. 47-62, A. 1. The specimen collected by the senior author
had a higher number, 35, of mid-body dorsal scales.

*Brachyophis revoili Mocquard

Brachyophis revoili, Scortecci, 1932, p. 46 (Sana, Yaman, 1).
_Brachyophis revoili revoili, Parker, 1949, p. 81, (in litt. and discussion)..

Scale count. The scale count given by Scortecci for his Yaman
specimen is V. 106, C. 13.

Coluber elegantissimus (Ginther)

Zamenis elegantissimus Gunther, 1878, p. 977 (Muwaylah in Midian, 1); Hart,

1891, p. 209 (Akabah, 1) ; Boulenger, 1893, p. 402 (in bes Zeprictsee 1896, pp. 82,
88, (in litt.).
Coluber elegantissimus, Parker, 1949, p. “45, (affinity with socotrae and florulentus).

‘Scale count. The scale count given by Boulenger ae p. 402)
is Sc. 19, V. 197-200, C. 79-83, A, a.

THE SNAKES OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA AND SOCOTRA 483

Coluber gemonensis (Laurenti)
‘Zamenis atrovirus, Shaw, Hart, 1891, p. 209, (Wadi Nasb in Sinai, 1).
Coluber viridiflavus var. carbonaria Bonaparte, 1839.
Scale count. Boulenger (1893, p. 396) gives the scale count as Sc.
17-19, V. 171-250, C. 87-130, A. 2.
Coloration. The specimen recorded by Hart was of the black
carbonarius variety.

Coluber karelinii Brandt

Zamenis karelinii, Bedriaga, 1879, p. 44, (Ras Masandam, +); Anderson, 1896,
pp. 82, 86, 90, (in Jitt.) ; Boulenger, 1893, p. 401, (in Jitt.).

Scale count. The count given by Boulenger for specimens from Persia
and Afghanistan is Sc. 19, V. 193-212, C. 85-110, A. 1. |

Coluber nummifer Reuss

Zamenis nummifer, Barbour, 1914, p. 88, (Fairan in Sinai, 1).

Scale count. Boulenger (1893, p. 407) gives the count as Sc. 23-25,
V. 197-216, C. 79-101, A. 1 or 2.

Coluber rhodorhachis (Jan)

Zamenis ventromaculatus, Gray, part, Giinther, 1858, p. 106 (Muscat, +) ; Boulen-
ger, 1887, p. 407, (Muscat, +).

Zamenis florulentus, Parenti & Picaquia, 1886, p. 68 (Aden, ++).

Zamenis ladacensis, Boettger, 1892, p. 62 (Aden).

Zamenis rhodorhachis Jan, 1864, p. 356 (all localities Persian) ; Gunther, 1878,

p. 977 (Midian) ; Boulenger, 1891, p. 632, (in litt.) ; idem, 1893, p. 398, (in litt.) ; Ander-
son, 1895, p. 635, (Aden, 4); idem, 1896, pp. 51, 82, 86, 89, 116, (in litt. and
Hadhramaut, 4) ; idem, 1898, p. 252, (in /itt.) ; idem, 1901, p. 137 (Abyan, 1); Bar-
bour, 1914, p. 88, (Fairan in Sinai, 1). .

Coluber rhodorhachis, Parker, 1931, p. 514 (Qara Mts. and Dhufar, 9) ; idem, 1931
(a), p. 228, (in litt.) ; idem, 1938, p. 481 (Southern Hejaz) ; idem, 1949, p. 30, (taxo-
nomy discussed) ; Schmidt, 1939, p. 73 (Aden, 1) ; idem, 1941, p. 165 (Wadi Sirra &
Jiddah, 4) ; idem, 1953, p. 260 (Hodaida & Sana, 2); Schmidt & Marx, 1956, p. 29
(Wadi al Shaikh in Sinai, 3) ; Scortecci, 1932, p. 39 (Yaman, 5).

Records. Further records based on specimens collected by the senior
author are Jiddah, Buraiman, Abha, Jol Bahawa, Bir Ali, Mukalla, Dis,
Khirba, and Hazar. The positions of these localities are shown on the
map.

Scale count: The scale count for the Arabian examples of
this species that have been recorded in the literature and taken from
specimens in the British Museum are Sc. 19, V: 210-260, C. 119-148, A. 2.
The specimens from the senior author’s collection fall within this range.
Coloration. The colour in these snakes seen alive was grey, with
darker markings, becoming darker in alcohol. A vertebral stripe was
present in some specimens. Boulenger (1893, p. 399) reports that in
Persian specimens the stripe is pink or red, but in the Arabian specimens
in life the stripe is drab. _

484 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

Vernacular names. Parker (193la, p. 229) records the Shahari names
for this snake in the Qara Mountains and Dhufar as difen, ojem, and
shaltum. In Acen Territory this species is known as al aghbar,
al aghbari, and al ghabr, all meaning ‘ the grey snake’, and also commonly
as tarrad or ‘ chaser’ and zarraqg=‘ lancer’ or ‘ projector’. These last
two names, however, are used for any slender, fast-moving snake.

Habitat. Specimens were found in a garden, a mosque tank, and on
a sandy sea-shore. It is the commonest snake found near human habi-
tation in Aden Territory, both in built-up areas and in the open
Country, and is often found in houses. Five specimens fell out of the
roofing of a room following anti-mosquito spraying with BHC.

Diet. Schmidt & Marx (1956, p. 29) recorded a skink in the stomach
contents of a male specimen. Another specimen, taken from a house
in Jiddah, contained a bird. :

Temperament. One specimen picked up on an early June morning
on a sand-and-gravel track near Mukalla bit vigorously when it was
handled. When it was released at some distance from a land-rover,
it returned twice to the car, climbing under the bonnet and later on to the
rear axle. Two other specimens also bit when handled. There was no
reaction to the bites.

Coluber rogersi Anderson

Coluber rogersi, Schmidt & Marx, 1956, p. 29 (Wadi Lathlali in Sinai, 1).

Scale count. The count was Sc. 19, V. damaged, C. 104. Boulenger
(1896, p. 623) gives a scale range for Egyptian specimens of Sc. 19, V.
197-201, C. 95-105, A. 2.

Coluber socotrae (Ginther)

Zamenis socotrae Ginther, 1881, p. 463 (Socotra, 3); Boulenger, 1893, p. 408 |
(in litt.) ; idem, 1903, p. 89 (Hadibu, 1). .

Zamenis socotrae, Steindachner, 1903, p. 14 [Tamarida (= Hadibu), Ras Shoab,
Kallarsiye, Hakari Islet, Samhah Island in Brothers Group, +].

Coluber socotrae, Parker, 1949, p. 42 and 44 (in litt.).

Records. In addition to the localities recorded in the literature, there
are two specimens in the British Museum, one collected at Hanefu, the
other labelled simply ‘Socotra’. The senior author’s collection includes
three specimens from the island, two collected in the hills near Hadibu
and one from Hasu between Qathb and Qallansiya (=Kallansiye above).

Scale count. Parker (1949, p. 41) gives the scale count Sc. 23, V. 219-
227, C. 113-124, A. 2. The senior author collected a specimen with a
caudal count of 133; the other counts were within the range given above.

Coloration. Boulenger (1903, p. 90) gives a description of the colour
as ‘ head olive above ; body with olive sometimes black-edged transverse
bands, separated by narrower salmon-red interspaces ; belly yellowish or
pale olive.’ A young specimen collected by the senior author was seen

THE SNAKES OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA AND SOCOTRA 485

alive. The colour was canary yellow, barred dorsally with bright cobalt
blue. On preservation it faded to grey, barred with black.

Vernacular names. The Socotri name bikaili was applied specifically
to the young specimen described above. The word shudhim was also
used, but this clearly meant ‘ snake’ in a general sense.

Coluber thomasi Parker

Coluber thomasi Parker, 1931, p. 514 (Qara Mountains and Dhufar, 1); idem, 1931a,
p. 228, (in litt.).

Records. The senior author’s collection contained a young specimen
from the Aden Protectorate, the precise locality being unrecorded.

Scale count. The type specimen has the scale count Sc. 15, V. 158,
C. 80, A. 2. The specimen collected by the senior author differed only
in the caudal count, which was 81.

Coloration. In preservation, the young specimen is creamy-white,
with black dorsal markings. A prominent row of large spots in the
midline of the ventral surface of the tail was a ready guide to
identification.

Coluber variabilis (Boulenger)

Zamenis variabilis Boulenger, 1905, p. 178 (Al Kubar in Haushabi State, 10).

Coluber variabilis, Scortecci, 1932, p. 43 (Sana in Yaman, 1) ; Parker, 1941, p. 4
(Jabal Harir, 1).

Records. The senior author’s collection contained a specimen from
Wadi Shadhan in the Hejaz, collected by Mr. G. Popov of the Desert
Locust Survey.

Scale count. The scale count for the other Arabian specimens of
this species 1s Sc. 17, V. 155-175, C. 80, A. 2. The specimen from
Wadi Shadhan was outside this range having Sc. 19, V. 187, C. 82, A. 2.

Coluber ventromaculatus Gray

Coluber ventromaculatus, Hart, 1912, p. 209 (Wadi Zalagah, Sinai, 1) ; Schmidt,
1939, p. 74 (Al Jubail, north of Bahrain, 1) ; Dickson, 1949, p. 471 (Kuwait, 1); Haas,
1957, p. 79 (Qara Mountains and Dhahran, 5); idem, 1961, p. 20 (Abqaiq and Al
Hasa, 4).

Scale count. The range was Sc. 19, V. 203-214, C. 91-119, A. 2.

Coronella somalica Scortecci
Coronella somalica Scortecci, 1932, p. 46, (Yaman, 1).

Scale count. The scale count was Sc. 21, V. 209, C. 80, A. 2.

Dasypeltis scabra (Linnaeus) .

Dasypeltis scaber, Parker, 1949, p. 67 (Al Kubar in Haushabi State, ++).

Dasypeltis scabra, Gans, 1959, p. 78, (in litt.).

Records. The senior author saw a preserved specimen at the Little
Aden oil refinery in 1951, which had been taken locally. The markings
suggestive of Echis carinata though faint, were defined.

486 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

- Scale count. The recorded counts are Sc. 23, V. 235-244, C. 61-64.
Remarks. Corkill (1956) and Gans (1961) have noted the mimicry
of Echis carinata by Dasypeltis scabra in shape, colour, and behaviour.

*Ditypophis vivax Gunther

Ditypophis vivax Gunther, 1881, p. 463 (Socotra, 1); Boulenger, 1896, p. 46,
(in litt.); idem, 1903, p. 90 (Hadibu, Adho Dimellus, Jena-Agahan, Homhil, 8);
Steindachner, 1903, p. 14 (Shoab, Wadi Felink, +); Parker, 1949, p. 89, (in litt.
and discussion).

Records. In addition to the specimens recorded in the literature
there are six specimens in the British Museum from Hadibu and Kishn
including three collected by the 1956 Oxford University Expedition to
Socotra. ,

Scale count. The recorded counts are Sc. 21-23, V. 142-154, C. 37-
44, A. 1. aes

Coloration. The colour is recorded by Boulenger (1903, p. 91) as
reddish or sandy grey with or without spots.

Remarks. The colouring of the snake, in conjunction with its short
tail, keeled scales, single subcaudals, and vertical pupil gives a superficial
appearance very similar to the mainland viper Echis colorata. Gunther
(see below) recorded the latter snake from Socotra, but no specimen has
been collected from there since. Nor has any other species been recorded
which is non-endemic. The accuracy of the collecting data of Giinther’s
specimen has been questioned in the light of these points. The present
Socotri Health Assistant on the island was trained at Mukalla on the
mainland and was familiar with the Echis vipers, which are fairly common
near Mukalla. He insisted that the dhuffa (the mainland name for both
Echis species) occurred on Socotra, where it was known as diatib.

It would appear that the two genera may be easily confused by the
less well-informed, and the statement made in the PERIPLUS OF THE ERY-
THREAN SEA (c. 100 A.D.) and quoted by Boulenger (1903, p. 91), that
there are a great many vipers on Socotra, is possibly also evidence of easy
confusion. Further collecting on the island would decide whether or not
Echis colorata occurs there.

Eirenis arabica Haas
Eirenis arabica Haas, 1961, p. 20 (Abqaigq, 1).
Scale count. The scale count was Sc. 15, V. 147, C. 52, A. 1.

Firenis coronella (Schlegel)

_Eirenis coronella, Barbour, 1914, p. 89 (Petra, 3, St. Catherine in Sinai, 2) ; Schmidt
& Marx, 1956, p. 30 (St. Catherine’s Monastery and Al Raba,.2).

Scale count. The scale count was Sc, 15, V. 140-158, C. 39-62, A, 2,

THE SNAKES OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA AND SOCOTRA 487

*Lycophidion capense (Smith)

Lycophidion capense, Scortecci, 1932, p. 43 (Sana, Yaman, 1); Parker, 1949, p. 54,
(in litt.).

Scale count. The scale count was Sc. 25, V. 162, C. 35.

Lytorhynchus diadema (Duméril & Bibron)

Lytorhynchus diadema, Boulenger, 1887, p. 407 (Muscat, I); idem, 1893, p: 415,
(in litt.) ; Maatschie, 1893, p. 19 (Aden, +); Anderson, 1896, pp. 82, 89, (in itt.) ;
idem, 1898, p. 272, (in litt.) ; Schmidt & Marx, 1956, p. 30 (Al Raba, 1). .

Lytorhynchus diadema arabicus, Haas, 1957, p. 80 (Abgaiq, Dhahran, Moraiwa Post,
9) ; idem, 1961, p. 21 (Abgaig in Al Hasa, 1).

Records. The present collection contained one specimen from
Gahma in Saudi Arabia, collected by Mr. G. Popov of the Desert Locust
Survey. | | :

Scale count. The scale count range for the Arabian specimens is
Sc. 19, V. 161-182, C. 35-43, A. 2.

Lytorhynchus sinai Schmidt & Marx
Lytorhynchus sinai Schmidt & Marx, 1956, p. 30 (Wadi Fairan in Sinai, 1).
Scale count. The scale count was Sc. 17, V. 184, C. 94, A. 2.

*Malpolon moilensis (Reuss)
‘Coluber moilensis Reuss, 1834, p. 142 (Moilah in Midian, 1).

Coelopeltis moilensis, Anderson, 1895, p. 656 (Aden, 1); idem, 1896, pp. 52 and 82,
89, (in litt. plus Hadhramaut, 2) ; idem, 1898, p. 293 (in litt.) ; idem, 1901, p. 137 (Abyan,
1) ; Boulenger, 1896, p. 144 (Aden, Hadhramaut and Muscat, 3).

Malpolon moilensis, Parker, 1931, p. 514 (Wadi Hauf in Rub-al-Khali, +) ; idem,
1931a, p. 228, (in litt.) ; idem, 1938, p. 481 (Jiddah, 1) ; Haas, 1957, p. 47 (Abgqaigq,
_ Dhahran, 9) ; Haas & Battersby, 1959, p. 202 (Bir Asakir, Jol, Jabrin, 5).

Records. There are 13 specimens recorded by the senior author from
Jiddah, Little Aden, Mukalla, and Bir Asakir. |

Scale count. The recorded scale range for the Arabian specimen
is Se:.17, V_139-176, C..53-73;. A..2.

Vernacular names. Parker (193la, p. 228) records the name zaragq
from the Rub-al-Khali. There are a number of names in the Aden
Protectorate that have been applied to this, as also other snakes; they are
hanash, haiya, tarrad=‘ chaser, and ragta=‘ spotted’. The name
zarrag =‘ lancer’ or ‘ projector’ might also be expected in this area. A
dead one, seen at Bir Asakir, was called hanfish by the garrison (see Naja
haje arabica below).

Habitat. All the specimens were taken in sandy places, two
on tracks. ote

Remarks. The senior author was told that the hanfish blew out its
throat. This suggests that the species was confused with a cobra al-
though Boulenger (1920, p. 399) writes of a report of a specimen in Iraq

488 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

dilating its neck, and Angel & Lhote (1938, p. 367) state that in the
French Sahara the species erects, and dilates its neck like Naja.

**Malpolon monspessulana (Hermann)

Coelopeltis monspessulana, Hart, 1891, p. 209 (Jabal Hartah in Sinai, +) ; Werner,
1893, p. 389 (Sinai, 1) ; Anderson, 1896, pp. 82, 91, (in litt.).

Scale count. Counts recorded are’ Se;.17; V. 176; C. 112, Av:

Natrix dubbiosii Scortecci
Natrix dubbiosii Scortecci, 1932, p. 40 (Yaman, 1).
Scale count. The scale count was Sc. 19, V. 167, C. 61, A. 2.

Philothamnus semivariegatus Smith

Philothamnus semivariegatus, Scortecci, 1932, p. 45 (Sana, Yaman, 1); Parker,
1949, p. 58, (in litt.). moe

Scale count. The scale count was Sc. 15, V. 176, C. 94.

*Psammophis punctulatus Duméril & Bibron

Psammophis punctulatus Duméril & Bibron, 1854, p. 897 (Arabia, 1) ; Parker, 1949,
p. 68, (in litt., validity of the record from Arabia questioned).

*Psammophis schokari (Forskal)

Coluber schokari Forskal, 1775, p. 14 (Yaman, +).

Coluber lacrymans, Reuss, 1834, p. 34 (Arabia, +).

Psammophis lacrymans, Boulenger, 1895, p. 538, (in litt.) ; Anderson, 1895, p. 635
(Haithalmin and Shaikh Uthman in Aden area, 2).

Psammophis schokari, Anderson, 1896, pp. 83, 87, 89, (in litt. plus Hadhramaut, 1) ;
idem, 1898, p. 299, (in litt.) ; idem, 1901, p. 137 (Abyan, 1) ; Boulenger, 1896, p. 158,
(in litt.); Barbour, 1914, p. 89 (Petra, Fairan, and Akaba, +) ; Parker, 1931, p. 514
(Fuzul, Qara Mountains and Dhufar, 3) ; idem, 1931 (a), p. 228, (in. litt.) ; idem, 1933,
p. 397, (Qatarat in Rub-al-Khali, 1) ; idem, 1941, p. 5 (Jabal Harir, 1) ; idem, 1949,
p. 70 (discussion of status and relationship of P. sibilans and P. schokari) ; Scortecci,
1932, p. 46 (Yaman, 1) ; Schmidt, 1939, p. 86, (Aden, 1) ; idem, 1953, p. 260 (Hodaida
Ma’abar area and Ta’izz in Yaman, 4) ; Schmidt & Marx, 1956, p. 36 (Wadi Fairan in
Sinai, 1); Haas, 1957, p. 47 (Qatif, Dhahran, Hail, Qara Mountains, 4); Haas &
Battersby, 1959, p. 202 (Jol, 1).

Records. In addition to the localities given above, the senior author
collected specimens from Buraiman, Sana, Kamaran Island, Jaar,
Makhzan, Bir Ali, Mukalla, Tarim, and Dhufar.

Scale count. The scale count of the Arabian examples that
have been recorded in the literature are Sc. 17, V. 170-196, C. 109-152.
Those taken from the specimens in the senior author’s collection fell
within the above range.

Coloration. In all specimens a light brown, black-bordered line extends
from the rostral, through the pre-ocular and post-ocular shields to the
neck. In one form this line continues down the side of the snake to the
end of the tail, a narrow white line separating it from the broad, grey-

THE SNAKES OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA AND SOCOTRA 489

brown, black-edged dorsal stripe. The ventrals are white. In the other
form the line fades at the neck, the dorsum being darker than the venter.

Vernacular names. ‘The specific name schokari, given to the snake in
the Yaman by Forskal was derived from shigari,‘ of the tree’. This was
heard by the senior author in Kamaran Island, applied by the police to a
specimen killed in a tree. They said the name was used in the Yaman
of the same snake. Parker (193la, p. 228) records that in the Qara
Mountains or Dhufar, the Shahari name for the snake is ishor and inshor.
In the Aden Protectorate the unstriped form would be called zarraq,
tarrad, or al ahmar=‘ the red one’. Several names have been applied
to the striped form, ba sharak=‘ with grooves’, mukhatat=‘ line’,
ba sharatain=‘ with two stripes’, and abu khatain=‘ of two lines’
the last is also used of the snake in the Trucial States. Because of the
suggestion of palm fibre, zaf, it is also called in the Protectorate zaf,
zafi, and zaffan=‘ palm fibre’ ‘of the palm fibre’ and ‘ palm-fibred ’
respectively.

Habitat. Specimens were taken in a house, on a sandy beach, under
a tree near a building, and from a tree adjoining a well.

Rhynchocalamus arabicus Schmidt

Rhynchocalamus arabicus Schmidt, 1933, p. 9 (Aden, 1) ; idem, 1939, p. 49, (pre-
sumed in Jitt.).

Scale count. The scale count was Sc. 15, V. 240, C. 81, A. 2. The
last 5 subcaudals were entire.

Rhynchocalamus melanocephalus (Jan)

Oligodon melanocephalus, Hart, 1891, p. 209 (Wadi Arabah, 1) ; Boulenger, 1894,
p. 246, (in litt.) ; Anderson, 1896, pp. 82, 87, 90, (in litt.) ; idem, 1898, p. 277, (in litt.).
Rhynchocalamus melanocephalus, Barbour, 1914, p. 89 (Petra, 1).

Scale count. ‘The scale count in Boulenger (loc. cit.) for Hart’s Sinai
specimen was Sc. 15, V. 229, C. 59, A. 2.

Spalerosophis diadema cliffordi (Schlegel)

Zamenis cliffordi, Giinther, 1878, p. 978 (Tihamat, Midian, 1).

Zamenis diadema, Boulenger, 1887, p. 20 (Muscat area, 3) ; idem, 1893, p. 412, (in
litt.) ; Hart, 1891, p. 209 (Mount Hor in Midian); Anderson, 1896, pp. 82, 86, 90, (in

litt., plus Hadhramaut, 2) ; idem, 1898, p. 269, (in Jitt.).

Spalerosophis diadema, Parker, 1931, p. 514 (Salalah, 1) ; idem, 1931a, p. 228, (in
litt.) ; idem, 1938, p. 481 (S. Hajaz, 1); idem, 1941, p. 4 (Sana, 1) ; Schmidt, 1941,
p.165 (Hulaifa in Najd, and Jiddah, 2) ; Schmidt & Marx, 1956, p. 33 (St. Catherine’s
Monastery and Fairan Oasis in Sinai, 2) ; Marx, 1959, p. 350 (in itt. and adoption of
trinomials).

Records. Examples of this species were collected by the senior author
from Buraiman, Abha, Shaik Uthman, Kod, Makhzan, and Jaar in the
Abyan region, Baihan, Ahwar, Jol Bahawa, Mukalla, Dis, and Shihr.

490 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

Scale count. The scale counts for the Arabian specimens were Sc.
25-29, V. 211-240, C. 65-80, and the specimens in the senior author’s.
collection have scale counts within the ranges given.

Coloration. The dorsal surface in life may be green, grey, or brown
varying with the locality and with darker heavily defined circular or
rhombic blotches themselves with paler edging. The ventral surface is
white or straw-coloured.

Vernacular names. As Spalerosophis diadema is a relatively large and
common snake with prominent markings, it attracts especially applicable
names, and is probably the snake most commonly called throughout
the Arab world, al raqta=‘ the spotted’. Parker (1931a, p. 228) records
the Shahari name from the Qara Mountains and Dhufar as fe’e de’e.
In Abha it was called bu bilsain=‘ of the lentils’, and in the Hajr
Province in the Qu’aiti State, al musabih=‘ the rosaried’. Rabudh=
‘ spotted ’ is also used in the Aden Protectorate. ,

Habitat. Specimens were taken in a brick store and from the gardens
of houses. One was found in a lucerne patch near a water channel.

Remarks. A half-grown specimen was sent in from Baihan with a
report that it had bitten a man who developed, among other symptoms,
a transient haematuria. In view of its identity as a known harmless species
it was suggested that there must be some mistake and further inquiries
were made. It then transpired that the snake was brought in later than
the case itself, after interest in the type of snake responsible for the bite
was Shown by the doctor. It seems most probable that the relatives then
sought for a spotted snake in the neighbourhood of the accident and in
good faith brought in the first such that was found. They had killed a
Spalerosophis, whereas the actual biter was almost certainly an Echis
or a Cerastes, both of which occur in the area, most probably an Echis
carinata, since haemorrhage is characteristic of poisoning by this species.

*Telescopus dhara (Forskal)

Tarbophis dhara Forskal, 1775, p. 14 (Yaman, 1) ; Anderson, 1896, pp. 62, 87, 89
(Medina, 1).

Dispsas obtusa, Boulenger,. 1887, p. 407 (Muscat, 2). |

Tarbophis guentheri, Anderson, 1895, p. 656 (Lahaj, 2) ; idem, 1896, pp. 52, 87, 88
(Hadhramaut, 2);. idem, 1898, p. 287, (in litt.); idem, 1901, p. 137 (Abyan,
1) ; Boulenger, 1896, p. 52, (in litt.) ; Scortecci, 1932, p. 39 (Yaman, +) ; Parker, 1933,
p. 398 (Hajaz, 1) ; idem, 1938, p. 481 (S. Hajaz, 1) ; idem, 1941, p. 4 (Jabal Jihaf, 1) ;
idem, 1949, p. 87, (taxonomy discussed) ; Schmidt, 1939, p. 85 (Aden, 1).

Tarbophis obtusus, Anderson, 1898, p. 286, (in Jitt.).

Tarbophis dhara guentheri, Haas & Battersby, 1959, p. 202 (Saiun, 1).

Records. The specimens collected by the senior author were from
Buraiman near Jiddah, Aden Town, Mukalla, Harshiyat and near-by
Dis, Shihr, and Dis al Sharquiya.

Scale count. The scale counts recorded for the Arabian specimens

THE SNAKES OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA AND SOCOTRA 49i

are Sc. 19-23, V. 226-274, C. 53-82, A. variable. The specimens in the
senior author’s collection had scale counts within this range.

Vernacular names. The snake is not conspicuous, and is not likely
to attract folk interest. The names applied to it in the Aden Territory
would be those meaning snake in the general sense, that is haiya, hanash,
tarrad, zarraq, and perhaps al ahmar=‘ the red’ as red and brown are
not always differentiated colloquially.

Habitat. The snake is frequently found in buildings. Specimens
have been found in a hole in a wall, in house gardens, in a heap of build-
ing debris, and from a drainage pool adjoining a mosque.

Diet. This snake and the species related to it have been noted as
predators on small birds in Egypt by Anderson (1898, p. 284), and in
the Sudan by Corkill (1935, p. 19). In Arabia, two of Anderson’s speci-
mens, found in a hole in a wall (1895, p. 656) had birds in the stomach
contents. Of the present collection one was taken from a bird’s nest in
a school, and one from a garden had an escaped budgerigar in its belly.
These snakes are frequently found in buildings which commonly harbour
sparrows. |

*Telescopus hoogstraali Schmidt & Marx
Telescopus hoogstraali Schmidt & Marx, 1956, p. 33 (Wadi al Shaikh in Sinai, 2).
Scale count. The scale counts were Sc. 19, V. 214-216, C. 51-59,
A. 2.

ELAPIDAE

The family is represented in the Peninsula by two genera, Naja and
Walterinnesia. For the former there has been specifically established by
Scortecci (1932, p. 47) Naja haje arabica, and it seems probable that this
will be valid for all Naja in the Peninsula though there are various colour
forms. All specimens of Naja seen by the senior author have had two
suboculars, a characteristic of Naja haje.

Dickson (1949, p. 470) writes of two types of ‘ cobra’ in Kuwait and
the Northern Hasa. He killed two at Araifjan which had hoods and
were 42 inches and 48 inches long. Confusion with Malpolon moilensis
is conceivable if it should prove that the latter in this area erects a hood,
but the lengths are rather extreme. The local name is given as hanish.
These are probably Naja haje arabica. He also writes of a black cobra,
known as ham and iyah. This is probably Walterinnesia aegyptia which
has been shown by Marx (1953, p. 189) to be synonymous with Naja
morgani of farther north and north-east in SW. Asia. On a recent visit
by the senior author to Abu Dhabi in the Trucial States, a snake, ‘ haiya
um al ghul’=‘ demon snake’, was described as ‘ large, brown, a killer,
and as inflating its throat’. A cobra was certainly the inspiration.

492 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

Naja haje arabica Scortecci

Naja haje, Anderson, 1898, p. 316 (Madina, 1).

Naja haje arabica Scortecci, 1932, p. 47, (Sana, +); Parker, 1931, p.514 (Qara
Mountains and Dhufar, +); idem, 1931 (a), p. 228, (in litt.); idem, 1938, p. 481
(Najran, 1) ; idem, 1941, p. 5 (Jabal Jihaf, 2) ; Haas, 1957, p. 81 (Jabal Qara, 1).

Records. The present.collection contained specimens, from Abha
in the Asir, Sana in the Yaman, Abyan, Musaimir (Haushabi), Mukairas,
Wadi Duan, Khoraiba, and Dis in the Aden Protectorate and: Khirba
Wadi Urf, and Manawara in the Mukalla area.

Scale count. Anderson’s female specimen from Madina (1898, p-
316) had counts. of Sc. 21-23, V. 213, C. 54 approximating more to the
Egyptian form of N. haje than to the records for N. haje arabica
the published range for which is Sc. 19-21, V. 210-226, C. 62-80. Three
of the author’s present collection examined in the British Museum were
within these latter limits. , | ‘

Coloration. Several_colour varieties were seen. The commonest
was pinkish brown with darker head and tail, and variable dark blotching
on the venter. In some the head and tail were black, and in some the
dorsal scales were edged with black. There were also’specimens of a
uniform genoa brown, darker: on the dorsal surface. Some had a white
tip: to the tail.

: : arnaculescrichiied Rie eerie eae names oneoniiaeal
Qara as haut and defen, and ojem for the young. A much travelled British
executive from the gold mine in Mahad in Saudi Arabia informed
the senior author that cobras were generally called thi’aban and were well
known in Taif, Mahad, Rimah, Najd, the Yaman, and Kuwait. In the
senior author’s collection, -the-specimen from. Abha., was called. jozari=
‘spring’..-In the Aden Protectorate specimens were called harsh=‘ gnawer’
and ham. These names, howevet, are there given. to any. large snake.
Harsh al shams=‘ harsh of the sun’, maharagqi al tarafain=‘ of the two
burnt extremities’. and its variants, maharagi al asud=‘ the black maharagqi’
and lazily maharaqi and tarafain, are all names applied specifically to the
cobra. Another name believed to apply specially to the cobra is qura
=‘pbald’. The name hanfish is given to a snake that ‘ blows out its
throat’ and was applied to Malpolon moilensis (see above), but the cobra
seems a more likely inspiration.

In the Trucial States it seems that um sab ghul would sent to thé
Arabian cobra (see above). Arathaid dharafu is a Mahri name collected
in Habarut and was said to be used of the cobra. A Marra tribesman
inspecting a preserved specimen in the senior author’s office said it was
the snake that-inflated its: throat and was called in-Marra, yam. , .

Habitat. Specimens.‘mentioned’ above were collected in. a ruined
building in Abha, in a tin-smith’s shop where another specimen had been
killed three months: before,-in -thé -dark in hilly country,.and-at-night

THE SNAKES OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA AND SOCOTRA 493

near a water-pump. One of a pair was killed ina palm garden near run-.
ning water, one was found dead in a watercourse after flooding,
and another was killed in, or adjoining, a well from whicha stock of anti-
malarial larvivorous fish had disappeared (see below). No specimens
were taken in extreme desert conditions, all came from paces near water
or potential sources of water. :

Diet. Although the local inhabitants blamed the cobra for the loss
of the larvivorous fish mentioned above, an investigation of the stomach
contents did not reveal any fish. |

Remarks. Two lots of pairs were taken. No acceptable history of
a bite by a cobra was encountered by the senior author i in thirteen years
of travel in the Peninsula. The non-black cobras described by Dickson
(see above) from the Hasa were probably N. haje arabica.

Walterinnesia aegyptia Lataste

Walterinnesia aegyptia, Haas, 1957, p. 81 Par. Dhahran, 3): Marx,. 1953,
p. 189 (believes it to be synonymous with Naja morgani Mocquard).

Scale count. The scale counts for the species, throughout its:
geographic range, are given by Marx (loc. cit.) as Sc. 21-23, V. 180-197,
C. 40-53, A. 2. From 1 to 13 of the subcaudal scales are divided.

_ Vernacular names. The black cobras in the Hasa of which Dickson
writes (see above) are very probably this species. They are known locally
as iyah.

HYDROPHIDAE

-No detailed fecuidls have: been found for the presence ‘ott sea snakes in
the- ‘Red Sea but Smith (1943, p.-477) writes that Pelamis platuris‘tias
been. recorded. from.-thete- and -the -senior -author in 1949, while fishing
in a creek at night at Khor Asfan, just north of Jiddah, saw-a snake a
few feet away swimming towards the boat. The accompanying fisherman
said they were common and were attracted by lights such as that of the
hurricane lamp which was being used to lure fish. Sea Snakes are fairly
common off the Aden Territory southern coast but the only one identified:
was. a R. platurus picked up by the senior author, on the Khormaksar
beach, near Aden. Sea snakes in the Aden Territory coast are commonly
called hanash al bahr=‘ snake of the sea ’.

In compiling the following records of sea snakes in the seas surround=
ing the Peninsula, Bombay has been taken as the southern coastal limit.

Astrotia stokesii (Gray)
Astrotia stokesii, Smith, 1926, p. 115 (Makran Coast and Karachi, 10), idem, 1943,
p. 471, (in litt. +). i eee 2s suet eee Sal) Say
Scale count. The range of scale counts! recorded is Sc. 37-47,- 47-59,
V. 226-286. :

+ The first two ranges relate to neck and widest part of bady respectively.

404 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

Enhydrina schistosa (Daudin)

Enhydrina valakadien, Boulenger, 1896, p. 303 (Muscat and Karachi, 4).

Enhydrina schistosa, Smith, 1926, p. 39 (Muscat and Karachi, 6) presumably includ-
ing the foregoing) ; idem, 1943, p. 449, (in /itt. +) ; Corkill, 1932, p. 25, (Persian Gulf,
4); Vols@e, 1939, p. 9, (Gulf of Oman, 3).

Scale count. The range of scale counts recorded is Sc. 40-55, 49-66,
V, 239-322.

Hydrophis cyanocinctus Daudin

Hydrophis cyanocinctus, Boulenger, 1896, p. 295 (Persian Gulf, Bushire, Khor
Abdulla, Karachi, Muscat, Bombay, 8); Smith, 1926, p. 57, (including the fore-
going, +); idem, 1943, p. 454 (inlitt. +); Vols@e, 1939, p.9 (Iranian Gulf, 7) ; Schmidt,
1939, p. 87 (Bahrain, 2) ; Haas, 1957, p. 82 (Al Khobar in Dhahran area, 10) ; idem,
1961, p. 21 (Dhahran area, 1).

Scale count. The range of scale counts recorded is Sc. 27-40, 37-47,
V. 281-390.

Hydrophis fasciatus fasciatus (Schneider)

Hydrophis fasciatus, Smith, 1926, p. 95, quoting Wall (1921, p. 344) (Karaciai, +).
Hydrophis fasciatus fasciatus, Smith, 1943, p. 465, (in litt.).

Scale count. The range of scale counts recorded is Sc. 28-33, 47-58,
V. 414-514. :

Hydrophis lapemoides (Gray)

Distira lapemidoides, Boulenger, 1896, p. 298 (Gwadar in Baluchistan, 1).
Hydrophis lapemoides, Smith, 1926, p. 88 (Persian Gulf, Jask, Makran Coast, 4) ;
idem, 1943, p. 461, (in litt. +) ; Vols@e, 1939, p. 9 (Iranian Gulf and Gulf of Oman, 8).

Scale count. The range of scale counts recorded is Sc. 29-35, 43-51,
V. 314-372.

Hydrophis mamillaris (Daudin)
Hydrophis mamillaris, Smith, 1926, p. 89; (Karachi and Bombay, 10) ; idem, 1943,
p: 462, (in litt: +).

Scale count. The range of scale counts recorded is Sc. 25-29; 35-43,
3 V. 302-390.

Hydrophis ornatus ornatiis (Gray)

Hydrophis ornatus, Smith, 1926, p. 83 (Muscat and Bombay, 2) ; Volsfe, 1939, p.
9 (Shatt-al-Arab, 1).
Hydrophis ornatus ornatus, Smith, 1943, p. 460 (Persian Gulf, +).

Scale count. The range of recorded scale counts is Sc. 28-45, 33-55,

V. 209-312.

ea he

THE SNAKES OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA AND SOCOTRA 495

Hydrophis spiralis spiralis (Shaw).

Hydrophis spiralis, Smith, 1926, p. 50 (Persian Gulf, Gangestum, Karachi, Muscat,
2) ; idem, 1943, p. 453, (in litt. +) 3; Vols@e, 1939, p. 9 (Persian Gulf and Gulf of
Oman, 4) ; Haas, 1961, p. 21 (Dhahran, 1).

Scale count. The range of scale counts recorded is Sc. 25-31, 33-38,
V. 295-362.

Lapemis curtus (Shaw)

Lapemis curtus, Smith, 1926, p. 113 (Muscat, 1) ; idem, 1943, p. 470, (in litt. +);
Vols#e, 1939, p. 9 (Persian Gulf, Straits of Hormuz and Gulf of Oman, 12).

Scale count. The range of recorded scale counts is Sc. 28-35, 33-43,
V. 154-194.

Microcephalophis cantoris (Giinther).

Microcephalophis cantoris, Smith, 1943, p. 475, (Karachi).

Scale count. The range of scale counts was Sc. 21-25, 41-48, V. 404,,
468.

Microcephalophis gracilis (Shaw)

Hydrophis gracilis, Boulenger, 1896, p. 280 (Jask, 1).

Microcephalophis gracilis, Smith, 1926, p. 123 (Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman,
. Makran Coast, Karachi, 6) ; idem, 1943, p. 472, (in litt. +) ; Corkill, 1932, p. 51 (Shatt-
al-Arab, 1) ; Vols%e, 1939, p. 9, (Persian Gulf, 9).

_ Scale count. The range of scale counts recorded is Sc. 17-23, 29-43,
V. 220-287.

Pelamis platurus (Linnaeus)

Hydrus platurus, Boulenger, 1896, p. 208 (Karachi, 1).
Pelamis platurus, Smith, 1926, p. 119 (Indian Seas, East African Coast, Bombay,
1) ; idem, 1943, p. 477, (in litt. plus ‘ Red Sea’).

Scale count. The range of scale counts is Sc. 49-67, V. 264- 406.

Remarks. The senior author picked up a dead specimen on Khor-
maksar beach, Aden, in the early morning on a falling tide in 1956. It
had a black dorsum and yellow venter.

Praescutata viperina (Schmidt)

Hydrophis jayakari, Boulenger, 1887, p. 408 (Muscat, 1).

-Distira viperina, Boulenger, 1896, p. 299 (Bombay, 1).

Thallasophina viperina, Smith, 1926, p. 35 (Persian Gulf, 1) ; Vols4 e, 1939, p.9
(Gulf of Oman, 8).

Praescutata viperina, Smith, 1943, p. 448 (Persian Gulf, etc.).

Scale count. The scale range was, Sc. 27-43, 37-50, V. 226-274.
LEPTOTYPHLOPIDAE

_ These snakes are not commonly encountered in Arabia and of the
species recorded, two are apparently restricted to Socotra, Like the

496. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

family Typhlopidae, they are insignificant snakes and both forms would
be spoken of as dud=‘ worm’.

Leptotyphlops spp.
- Two specimens were collected by the Oxford University Expedition
to Socotra in 1956 (Adho Dimellus and Kischen, 2).

Leptotyphlops burii (Boulenger)
-Glauconia burii Boulenger, 1905, p..178 (Al Kubar in Haushabi State, 1).
The species rests on One specimen only considered by Boulenger (loc.
cit.) to be near G. nursii.
Measurements. The length /diameter ratio was 52, and the total/tail
ratio 152.

Leptotyphlops filiformis (oulbteen)

i Glauconia filiformis Boulenger, 1899, p. 7 ined Dahamis, feng Nese and
Homhil, 4) ; idem, 1903, p. 88, (in litt.) ; Steindachner, 1903, p. 13 (Hakari in Socotra

ies
Leptotyphlops filiformis, Parker, 1949, p. 20, (in litt.).

Measurements. The length/diameter ratio was 100-140.
aS Remarks. Records of the Species are from Socotra only.

Leptotyphlops macrorhynchus (Jan)

Records. .The species is new for Arabia, the previous range being
Iraq, Iran, and Egypt. The present collection contained a single speci-
men from Aden Protectorate.

Measurements. The length/ diameter ratio was 105.

Leptotyphlops macrura (Boulenger)

Glauconia. longicauda (non. Peters), Boulenger, 1899, P. a ENS ete
Homhil, Socotra, 8).

Glauconia macrura Boulenger, 1903, p. 89, (in litt.).

Leptotyphlops macrura,'Parker, 1949, p. 20, (in litt.).

Records. Records of the species are from Socotra only. They
were taken at altitudes of 350-2500 ft.

Measurements. The tenet i. diameter ratio was 40-48 and the total/
tail ratio 5-7. tee tye
Leptotyphlops nursii (Anderson) |

Glauconia nursii Anderson, 1896, p. 64 (Aden, 2) ; Boulenger, 1896, p. 591, (in litt.)’

Leptotyphlops yemenicus, Scertecci, 1933, p. 165 (Yaman, 1).

Leptotyphlops nursii, Parker, 1938, p. 481 (Najran, 2) ; Schmidt, 1953, p. 259 (Taizz,
=)

Records. The present collection contains three specimens from
Mecca and the Aden Protectorate. |

_ Measurements. The Leaeey diameter ratio recorded is 50-51, the total/

“tailratio 10-11%. 2 :

~
a

THE: SNAKES OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA AND. SOCOTRA 497:

Habitat. The Taizz specimens were taken from a rubbish heap in
the town. The Mecca specimen was collected in a house garden after
dark.

Leptotyphlops phillipsi Barbour

Leptotyphlops phillipsi Barbour, 1914, pp. 87-88 (Petra in Sinai, 13).

| Measurements. The length/ diameter ratio was 86, the total / tail ratio
125. The nostril does not reach the level of the eyes asin L. macrorhynchus
and the second post-ocular labial is much larger than in the latter.

TYPH LOPIDAE

The snakes of utig family like those of the Leptotyphlopidae would
be simply called what they resemble, that is dud=‘ worm’.

Typhlops braminus (Daudin)

Typhlops braminus, Boulenger, 1893, p. 16 (Muscat, 1).

Measurements.. The counts were Sc. 20 and the length/ diameter
ratio 35-55. The length is given as ne mm,

Typhlops socotranus Boulenger

Typhlops sp., Giinther, 1881, p. 462 (Socotra, 2).

Typhlops socotranus Boulenger, 1889, p. 362, (in litt.) ; idem, 1893, p. 21, (in litt.) ;
idem, 1903, p. 88, (in Jitt. +, eons, 2D ; Parker, 1949, p. 26 (in litt. and
taxonomy).

Typhlops sokotranus, eueieimen: 1903, p. B (Socotra, +).

Records. Records are from Socotra only.

Measurements. The length/diameter ratio was 37-50. The tail was
as long as broad. There were 26-28 scales round the body. Boulenger
gives the length as 200 mm.

Typhlops ential: (Daudin)
| Typhlops vermicularis, Duméril & Bibron, 1844, p. 303 (Sinai, 4); Anderson, 1896,
p. 81, (in litt.).
Measurements.. The length/diameter ratio is given as 40-52 and
the total/tail ratio 62.

VIPERIDAE

Right species of vipers are recorded from the Peninsula, of which three
are relatively common, Cerastes cerastes, Echis carinata, and Echis
colorata, the last two being the commonest cause of accident and death
from snake bite. Though deaths do occur, the fatality rate is thought
to be low. Peripheral rarities in the north are Pseudocerastes fieldii,
Pseudocerastes persicus, and Atractaspis engaddensis. Vipera lebetina

498 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

recorded in the Yaman is a species that is normally found much further
north and Bitis arietans, a typically African species, is recorded from the |
west and south, in hilly areas.

Certain of these snakes being fairly common and dangerously veno-
mous, as might be expected, inspire the largest amount of folklore and
the greatest number of folk names for snakes in the Peninsula. :

In classical Arabic, viper is afa. Kopf (1960, p. 214) discusses the word
and considers it fits particularly the Echis snakes and the horned viper
(Cerastes cerastes cerastes). The word is discussed in relation to vipers
in general above (p. 480). In thesenior author’s experience, from Libya
to the Sudan and Aden, and through Arabia and Persia to Delhi, the word _
or its variants are applied more particularly to the Echis snakes, and
seemingly are derived from the f sound, made by both the Cerastes and
Echis when coiling about. At the same time, clear-cut difference in form,
for example the presence of horns and excessive abundance, have not ruled
out the use of many other colloquial names for certain vipers (see below),
most notably, the Cerastes when horned, and the commoner, and thus
more dominating, FE. carinata of the two Echis species.

Atractaspis microlepidota andersoni Boulenger

Melanelaps mcphersoni, Wall, 1906, p. 27 (‘ Dhali’=Dhala?, N. of Aden +).

Atractaspis andersoni Boulenger, 1905, p. 178 (Al Kubar in Haushabi, 5) ; Parker,
1931, p. 514 (Aizet in Qara Mts. or Dhufar, 4) ; idem, 1931 a, p. 228, (in /itt.) ; idem,
1949, p. 108 (discussion).

Atractaspis microlepidota andersoni, Laurent, 1950, p. 10 (revision of genus).

Records. In the present collection the specimens were collected from
Kod in the Abyan area, one found preserved in a jar in Sheikh Uthman,
and from unspecified localities in the western Protectorate. There is
also a specimen in the British Museum, collected by Haythornwaite
from Dhala. | z

Scale count. The range of scale counts is Sc. 23-25, V. 219-254,
C. 27-33, A. 1. The specimens in the author’s collection fell within
this range. In two specimens from Kod, the tail terminates in a small.
white spike.

Vernacular names. Parker records the Shahari name as disos,
The Kod specimens were referred to as abu ashara dagiqa=‘ of
ten minutes ’, presumably in relation to the interval between bite and
death. This may have been brought to Kod by the Sudanese officials
at the cotton ginnery, since both the name and the belief exist in the Sudan
(Corkill 1935, p. 30) applied to Atractaspis microlepidota. The name
sul was also used in both Kod and the Sudan and was heard later in Abu
Dhabi in the Trucial States of a black snake said to be lethally poisonous.

Although only few specimens have been collected the snake is well
known throughout the Aden Protectorate, where it is usually referred to
as al aswadi or al aswad=‘the black one’, In Mukairas the word

THE SNAKES OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA AND SOCOTRA 499

jahas is used of it and in Mudia, al munassi=‘ the forgotten’. This last
name is connected with the belief that the symptoms do not develop until
three days after the bite, when it has been (sic) forgotten. In the Wahidi
State the delay was said to be twenty-five to forty days. In Mahra at
Habarut the snake was called arathaid harut=‘ snake black’.

Atractaspis engaddensis Haas

Atractaspis engaddensis, Schmidt & Marx, 1956, p. 36 (Fairan Oasis and Wadi, in
Sinai, 2).

Scale count. Scale counts were Sc. 28-29, V. 275-282, C. 34-36, A.1.

Bitis arietans (Merrem) .

Vipera arietans, Anderson, 1896, p. 55 (Hadhramaut, 1).

Bitis arietans, Boulenger, 1896, p. 494, (in litt.) ; Parker, 1931, p. 514 (Qara Moun-
tains and Dhufar, In, Fazul and Sa’arin, 3) ; idem, 1931 a, p. 228, (in litt.) ; idem, 1941,
p. 5 (Haz in Yaman, 1) ; Schmidt, 1953, p. 253 (Taizz, 2).

Records. The present collection contained two specimens, both from
Sana in the Yaman.

Scale count. The recorded scale range for the Arabian specimens is
Sc. 25-33, V. 126-138, C. 16-25, A. 1.

Vernacular names. Parker (193la p. 228) records the Shahari name
dolalat from the Qara Mountains and Dhufar. Scott (1947, p. 238)
writes that in the Amiri highlands, the snake was called haiya and hanash,
both general names for snakes. At Raidat Maarar in a Hadhramaut
escarpment the senior author heard talk of a snake, ‘ a big killer in the
hills ’ called tarsha=‘ deaf one’. In the Sudan Bitis arietans shares the
name nawama=‘ sleeper’ with Python regius because of their similar
sluggish behaviour. In Iraq, Vipera lebetina is called the haia tarsha=
‘ deaf snake ’, and in Cyprus, kufi, which also means ‘ deaf’, apparently
because it seems sluggish. In parallel B. arietans may be the ‘ deaf snake ’

of the Hadhramaut escarpment, from which in any case it has. already

been recorded.

Remarks. The species is characteristically African, and does not
appear to be common in Southern Arabia. It is found discontinuously
in the hills of the Yaman, Hadhramaut, and the Qara Mountains.

Cerastes cerastes (Linnaeus)

Vipera cerastes, Strauch, 1862, p. 359 (Arabah in Midian).

-Cerastes cornutus, Werner, 1893, p. 359 (Sinai, +) ; Anderson, 1896, p. 82, (in litt.) ;
idem, 1901, p. 151 (Abyan 1) ; Boulenger, 1896, p. 503 (Arabia, Sinai, Timaht in Midian,
and Hadhramaut,4) ; Barbour, 1914, p.91 (Sinai, +). Parker, 1931, p. 514, (in Jitt.).

Aspis cerastes, Parker, 1938, p. 481 (South Hadjaz, 3) ; Schmidt, 1939, p. 88 (Al
Jubail, 1) ; idem, 1941, p. 165 (Junaitha, 1) ; Haas, 1961 »D. 19 (Al Hasa, 3); Haas &
Battersby, 1959, p. 202 (Jabrin, 1).

500 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

Cerastes cerastes, Haas, 1957, p. 82 (Dhahran, Abqaiq, Shimal and oe Shaiba
in the oilfields, 23). |

Records. Apart from the records mentioned above the species has
been written of by various other authors. Doughty (1921, p. 313) writes
of encountering it in his mid-nineteenth century travels in Midian, the
Hejaz, and Najd. Thomas (1932, p. 59) writes of its being encountered .
in the Rub-al-Khali as ‘inevitable’. Thesiger (1959, p. 108) writes of it
as common in Atarit in the same desert. Dickson (1949, p. 470) writes
of it in Kuwait and Hasa, Scott (1947, p. 25) says that it is plentiful in
Shaik Uthman in Aden Territory. Philby (1939, p. 106) tells of encoun-
tering three one night at Shabwa in the Hadhramaut, and Abdullah Mansur
(1911, p. 337) gives an account of them between Aden and Lahej.

The present collection numbers fourteen specimens of which five
were horned. These came from Marrath Oasis in Saudi Arabia, Little
Aden, Ahwar, Baihan, and the Thamud area on the edge of the Rub-al-
Khali.

Scale count. The counts given in the literature for the Arabian speci-
mens are Sc. 26-39, V. 139-166, C. 31-39.

Coloration. The ground colours in live specimens were yellowish, but
preserved specimens ranged from yellow, through brown and pink, to
grey. The specimen from Little Aden was much darker than the others.

Vernacular names. Doughty (1921, p. 313) gives the name of the
species in north-west Arabia as um janaib,=‘ sideways one’. Thomas
collected the name of kabsh=‘ ram’ from the Rub-al-Khali, recorded by
Parker (1931, p. 230, 1932, p. 344).

In Baihan, the snake was called haiya which, although frequently
used of snakes in general, is most commonly applied to small, yellow,
superficially similar forms, such as Cerastes, Echis, and Eryx. Haiya
biqurun=‘ horned haiya’ is the usual term in conversation. The name
kabsh was used by a Manhali from Thamud. Other names used of this
species were haiyat al qurun=‘ the haiya of the horns’, haiyat al jabal=
‘the haiya of the hills or wilderness ’, abu qurain=‘ of two horns’, and
um al qurun=‘ of the horns’. At Habarut on the Mahra mainland, the
corruption of the Arabic name is rabudh biskarun=‘ spotted one of the
horns’. Because of its habit of occupying burrows or lying superficially
buried, in sand, it shares the name dafn with Echis and Eryx. Specimens
have also been labelled bathan (cf. Hebrew pethen)=‘ serpent’ and hanash
al argat=‘ the spotted hanash’, which indicates some confusion with
the last two genera.

_. Habitat. The snake is common throughout the sandy deserts of the
Peninsula, and is also found in north Africa, Iraq and Iran.

Remarks. A boy was seen in Baihan playing fearlessly with large
horned and unhorned specimens, and two small horned ones, one of
which he teased until it bit a piece of rag.

THE SNAKES OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA AND SOCOTRA 501

Echis carinata pyramidum (Geoffroy St. Hilaire)

Echis carinatus, Ginther, 1878, p. 977 (Midian, 1) ; Boulenger, 1887, p. 5. 407 (Muscat,
7); idem, 1896, p. 506, (in litt.) ; Anderson, 1895, p. 635 (Lahej, 1) ; idem, 1896, p. 83
(Hadhramaut, 1) ; idem, 1898, p. 341, (in litt.) ; idem, 1901, p. 13 (Lahej, 1); Boettger,
1892, p. 63 (Aden, +); Parker, 1931, p. 514 (Zik in Qara Mountains or Dhufar, 1);
idem, 1931a, p. 228, (in litt.) ; idem, 1949, p. 106, (discussion).

Echis carinata Pe i Constable, 1949, p. 156 (Snakes of Arabia referred to this
sub-species).: .

‘ Records. The senior alithor’s collection included specimens taken
from Buraiman, Lahej, Makhzan, Kod, Mukalla, Bagarain near
Ants ale: Mola Matar, and Ghail Bawazir.

—'* Scale count. . The scale counts for the Arabian Eels of this species
are Sc. 27-32, V. 159-184, C. 27-48. A. female specimen in the senior
-author’s collection had a ventral count of 189 and mid-body scale count
of 31. It was not possible to count ihe subcaudal scales, as the specimen
was damaged.

— Coloration. The dorsum may be grey or yellow to brownish or
reddish with darker markings having paler edging, and with or without
a paler marking suggestive of a broad arrow or bird’s foot on the head.
The effect of the paler markings is to suggest a wavy line down each flank.
In a well- marked’ specimen the aptness of the name, ‘carpet viper ’, is
clear. The belly may be clear white or tinged yellow, or may be speckled
black or brown. In some specimens ‘markings may be insignificant.

Vernacular names. Echis carinata shares several folk names and folk

attributes with Echis colorata, due to the great similarity between the two
species. In Aden Territory, a common name applied to them both is
ofa with its variants, perhaps more frequently in the West. In the East
dhuffa=‘ cow-pat’” is commoner, and. refers to their appearance when
coiled up and lying on the ool The most commonly used name,
however, .is dafn = ‘“burier’. Tiiis last: is widely applied to the Echis
snakes and i inspires a local jingle, one version of which is :

idha ladagak. al dafn
jahiz al. ganna wa al kafn.

5... TIf-you are bitten by the dafn
Prepare for Paradise arid the shroud.] |

The word afa has many variants, such as fa, fai, fai, fau, which may
be regarded as partly mimetic in origin (see above, p. 480). Inspired by
the rustle of the coils moving over one another, more definitely so are the
names fakhukh, fakhakk, fakhakha, and fashish. These are more
local in.application, and together with the forms um jahausha, majahausha,
(=um jahausha), and warash recall the mimetic colloquial names for E.
carinata in the Sudan (Corkill 1935, p. 29), involving f and sh sounds.

In reference to the white wavy lines along the sides of the typical
E.. carinata, the classical name dhu al tafitain=‘ of the two festoons ’ G

5902. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

was heard once in 13 years. When the markings present are clearly
defined as spots, the names ragta, rabudh, and hanash argat all meaning
‘ spotted ’ are used. In Jiddah specimens were called um janaib (a name
used of Cerastes in Najd and Iraq), a Najdi giving the variant um jannab.
A visiting Marra tribesman seeing a specimen in the office at Mukalla,
said it was an invaisha. At Raidat Abdul Wadud, a local official said
the dhuffa was also known as jid al Saiban=‘ the male ancestor of the
Saiban’. The latter are a local tribe on the Hadhramaut escarpment.
The name rather suggests a pre-Islamic cult vestige.

Habitat. The snake is usually found in rock, sand, gravel, and sparse
xerophytic vegetation. Records of places in which specimens were taken
include: near hospital buildings, near prison buildings, in a village, in
a palace and other gardens, in cotton cultivation, and on a road in flooded
ground. .

Diet. A gerbille was found in the stomach of one of the specimens
in the senior author’s collection.

Remarks. In Ghail Bawazir, a small boy was seen handling the snake
quite fearlessly. Two specimens responsible for non-fatal bites were
brought in with patients, in Makhzan and Mukalla. The cases recovered
but on the whole the lethality implied in the jingle (see above, p. 501),
exaggerated though it is, is borne out by clinical experience. All serious
cases of snake poisoning in the Territory for which there are acceptable
records have had haemorrhagic symptoms characteristic of poisoning
by this species. Occasional deaths undoubtedly occur.

Echis colorata Gtnther

Echis coloratus Giinther, 1878, p. 988 (Jebal Sharr in Midian, 1) ; idem, 1881, p. 463
(Socotra, 1); Boulenger, 1887, p. 408 (Muscat, +) ; idem, 1896, p. 507, (in litt.) ; idem,
1903, p. 91 (discussion on Socotran record) ; Anderson, 1896, p. 83 (Hadhramaut,
1); idem, 1898, p. 343, (in litt.) ; Barbour, 1914, p. 90 (Akaba, 1); Parker, 1938,
p. 481 (Hajaz, 1) ; idem, 1949, p. 105 (discussion on Socotran record) ; Dickson, 1949,
p. 470 (Kuwait area, 2) ; Schmidt & Marx, 1956, p. 36 (Fairan Oasis and Al Raba in
Sinai, 3) ; Haas & Battersby, 1959, p. 202 (northern Hadhramaut, 1).

Records. The present additions number 10 specimens from ‘ Aden
Territory ’, Little Aden, Jaar in the Abyan area, Jol Bahawa, and Fuwa,
Khurba, and Riyan in the Mukalla area.

Scale count. The scale counts for the Arabian specimens were Sc.
31-35, V. 174-205, C. 44-54.

The two specimens in the senior author’s collection that were not too
mutilated to be accurately counted had scale counts within this range.

Vernacular names. This species is frequently confused with
E. carinata, and it is not therefore surprising to find that apart from dhu
al tafiten (inspired by a boldly marked E.carinata) the same names, already
mentioned above, are used by the Arabs for both species.

As mentioned above the health assistant from Socotra, who was
trained in Mukalla and who knew the snakes of both the island and the

Tiiii SNAKES OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA AND SOCOTRA 403

mainland, insisted that the dhuffa, the word used on the mainland of
both Echis species, occurred in Socotra, and was there known as diatib.
E.colorata has, in fact, but possibly erroneously, been recorded from the
island (see above). He could not remember any serious cases of snake
bite on the island, however, and none at all that had suffered from hae-
maturia, a characteristic of viperine poisoning. Every other species
recorded from the island is endemic, and it is possible that the snake is
confused with the viper-like Ditypophis vivax (see above, p. 486). Unless
another Echis colorata is found on the island, its occurrence there must
remain doubtful.

Habitat. Of the specimens collected by the senior author, one came
from under palm branches in a grass hut, one from water in a water-
course, and one from a mud hut.

Remarks. One bit a boy who, although up and about the next day,
was said five months later to be still troubled with a swollen foot limiting
complete freedom of movement.

Pseudocerastes fieldi Schmidt

Pseudocerastes fieldii Schmidt, 1930, p. 227 (Bair Wells and Um Wa’al in Jordan
1) ; idem, 1939, p. 88, (in litt.) ; Flower, 1930, p. 224 (South of Hassanat in Sinai, pre-
sumed fieldii, 1) ; Haas, 1957, p. 82 (Sakara near Jauf, 1).

Pseudocerastes persicus (Duméril & Bibron)
Pseudocerastes persicus, Laurent, 1948, p. 9 (Lingah, Persian Gulf, 1).
Scale count. The scale count was Sc. 25, C. 44.

Vipera lebetina (Linnaeus)
Vipera lebetina, Scortecci, 1932, p. 39 (Sana in Yaman, 1).

Scale count. The scale count was Sc. 23-27, V. 147-180, C. 29-51, A. 1.
Records. This is the southernmost record for the species, and
rather remote from the normal distribution some 15° further north.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Acknowledgements are gratefully made by the senior author to
Dr. H. W. Parker, formerly of the British Museum, for identification of
certain material over many years, and by both authors to Miss
A. G. C. Grandison of the Museum’s present staff for personal help,
facilities, and access to comparative material related to the additions to
the Museum’s collection, which are dealt with in this paper.

For specimens, field notes or records of snake poisoning, it is a pleasure
to express indebtedness to Dr. A. Affara, Aden B. P. Refinery Hospital,
K. R. M. Anthony Esq., Maj. St. J. Armitage, Shaikh Hadi Bahayan,
Z. R. Beydun Esq., Dr. A. Bittar, P. K. Booker Esq., Dr. K. P. Cruse,

504. JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) -
Dr. H. Duhm, Dr. A. L. Fawdry, Mr. Gunn, Dr. E. T. Gonnet; Dr.
Hayatt, Dr. A. S. Hassan, J. Hewitt Esq., Dr. E. Hoek, Dr. T. S. Japan:
wala, Dr. C. R. Jones, P. Kershaw Esq., Shaikh Mohammed Kharusi,
Capt. F. Mansfield, J. McEwan Esq., Dr. G. D. Morris, H. St. J. Philby
Esq., G. Popov Esq., Dr. K. V. Ranade, Group Capt. Rice, Dr. H. K.
Robertson, Dr. B. R.'‘S. Gupta, Dr. R: B. Smith, Lt. Col. I. E: Snell,
A.C, Trott Esq., Mr. Wade, G. Wall Bele Mrs. B. peellss and D. Watts
Esq.

Special thanks are due to the Amb staff of the Aden: Protectorate
Health Service, notably Abdul Hamid Abdul Qawi, Abdullah Audhali,
Abu Bakr Awadh Abaad, Ahmad Muhammad Aidarus, Ali Said Shaabi,
Awadh Nasir, Fadhl Said, Hassan Ahmad ba Abad, Mahfud al Amari,
Muhammad Ahmad Mahairi, Muhammad Ba Ras, Muhammad: Abdul
Rabu, Muhammad Qasim Muflahi, Muhamad Salim Ali, Muhammad
Salim Yafa’i, Muhammed Uthman, Nasir Farid, Salah Rubaiya Ghabri,
Salim Ahmad Bajuban, Salim Ahmad Hassani, Salim Mahfud Haidar,
Shaikh Ahmad Bawazir, and Thani bin Ali. Particular acknowledge-
ment is made to Chief Health Inspector Sayyid Omar Khamur of the
Qu’aiti State Service for much of the material collected, and to the senior
author’s clerical staff, Mr. Hussain Rugai, and Mr. “Muhammad Ockba

for translation of manuscripts, labels, Ln. notes.

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See

Metrical and Non-metrical Variation
in the Skulls of Gir Lions

NeiL B. Topp, Ph. pb.

Animal Research Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston,
Massachusetts

(With three plates)

INTRODUCTION

The story of the Indian lion has been told and retold in nearly as many
ways as times, but with the exception of the papers by Pocock (1930,
1935), Dharmakumarsinhji & Wynter-Blyth (1951), Wynter-Blyth
(1949, 1951, 1956), and Wynter-Blyth & Dharmakumarsinhji (1950) very
little of value has been contributed to the topic. Even Pocock’s
admirable and very useful efforts were greatly hampered by a lack of
evidence and material, for when his paper of 1930 was published the frag-
mentary remains of only a dozen or so Indian lions were available to him
- throughout the world. Furthermore, only three skulls which he was
able to study represented wild-killed animals. This unfortunate situa-
tion has been corrected in part by subsequent collection of material and
especially by the good fortune of recently obtaining a series of nearly
complete skulls and mandibles representing 20 Gir lions. These skulls
were ‘found’ in November 1963, in a compound adjacent to the Forest
Guest House at Sasan Gir. They had been gathered from the Sasan
Range of the forest by shikaris over the preceding 5-10 years and allegedly
were the remains of animals which had died natural deaths.

Although this paper commences with a comparative study of Gir and
African lions, it must be stated at the outset that this comparison is made
only to demonstrate features characteristic of Gir lions which may then
be studied within the Gir population. Beyond this there are serious
theoretical objections attaching to the interpretations of an inter-popula-
tion comparison. The principal objection revolves around the fact that

1 Some may have been dispatched by local herdsmen both by poisoning and in at
least one instance by what might be reasonably interpreted as a gunshot wound. It
was also mentioned by shikaris that some lions had drowned during the monsoon
season in 1963. The condition of these specimens is tolerably good in spite of the fact
that most of the canine teeth have been removed and the turbinals in most cases are
missing. Some of the specimens show the results of having been molested by village
dogs, which may also account for the missing mandibles.

508 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

the Gir population has been and still is subject to phenomena peculiar
to small populations. Ordinarily differences which are found between
two populations are attributed directly or indirectly to extrinsic factors
on the assumption that both populations approach the classical Hardy-
Weinberg model where the effects of inbreeding and chance are insigni-
ficant. The Gir population which apparently dwindled to about 25
animals around the turn of the century (Wynter-Blyth 1951) obviously
does not conform to this ideal, thereby limiting or invalidating the usual
interpretive procedures. A detailed intra-population study is under
way, some aspects of which will be discussed below, but the main part of
this undertaking will be presented in a future paper.

METHODS

As a preliminary to the investigation of the Gir lion skulls, a sample
of African skulls! was measured in order to generate, albeit somewhat
arbitrary, a reference population. This reference population consists
of a group of 31 skulls best described as ‘ P. /eo-African races’. More
precisely it is comprised of the individuals indicated in Table I. All

TABLE I

SUBSPECIFIC AND SEX IDENTIFICATIONS (AS PER MUSEUM NOTES) OF THE
REFERENCE POPULATION ‘ P, Jeo-African races ”

tm ee reno ee ee at ea

Male Female ?

P. leo krugeri 8
P. leo massaica 2
P. leo nyanzae y)
P. leo abyssiniae 0
2
14

P. leo subspp.

captive-born or raised animals, where known or suspected, have been
rejected, as these have been shown to be greatly modified by captivity,
especially as regards the skull (Hollister 1917). Only those specimens
whose sex was recorded and a few which were unmistakably those of
males or females because of size and age characteristics have been placed
in one or the other category. In the unsexed group there are probably
rather more females than males. The only fundamental objection to
this group as a reference for the present purpose is that there appears to

1 Specimens in the collection at the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard
University.

VARIATION IN THE SKULLS OF GIR LIONS 509

have been some preference for large size in assembling the Museum collec-
tion. This problem, however, has been taken into account as will be
discussed in the analyses reported below. Table II gives the measure-
ments of the sample ‘ P. /eo-African races’ and Table III presents the
same measures taken of 16 of the Gir skulls collected in 1963.1 The
“measures made are only a portion of those which would ordinarily be
employed in a ‘ classical’ study, but they are more than sufficient for the
various statistical analyses which have been performed. All measure-
ments have been made to the nearest millimetre.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Three analyses of the data from the measurements have been made.
All were performed on the IBM 7049 computer, Computation Labora-
tory, Harvard University. The first, a component analysis* serves to
indicate principal underlying components in the total variance of the
sample and is a measure of redundancy in the measurements taken as a
whole. The first principal underlying component explains approximately
95% of the total variance, and represents size almost assuredly as the
ranking of individual specimens on this scale reveals. The second com-
ponent, accounting for about 3% of the total variance, perfectly discri-
minates between the populations of ‘ P. /eo-African races’ and ‘ P. leo-
Gir’ and, therefore, may be thought of as'a measure of ‘ African-ness ’

r ‘Gir-ness’ of these groups. The third component, accounting for
about 2% of the variation in these samples, has not been attributed to any
particular characteristic, and none of the remaining components clearly
relate to sex, a fact which serves to increase confidence in comparisons of
the two populations, as there might otherwise be reservations about the
differences in sex ratios of the two groups.

The second analysis? examines the differences in the means of indi-
vidual variables between the populations. The variables chosen for this
analysis are the ratios of measurements to a standard length (condylo-
basal length), i.e. a series of indices. This manipulation effectively elimi-
nates size as a variable. In Table IV the means for each variable and the

1 Measurements were made as follows: (1) Condylobasal length=basal length
from anterior end of premaxillary to inferior notch between condyles; (2) Palatal
length=length from anterior end of premaxillary to anterior end of posterior nasal
opening ; (3) Muzzle width=greatest width across muzzle at border of canine alveoli ;
(4) Intraorbital width =least width between superior border of orbits ; (5) Postorbital
constriction=least width; (6) Zygomatic width=—greatest width across zygomatic
arches; (7) Palatal width=width between inner roots of superior carnassials; (8)
Mastoid width=greatest width across mastoid processes ; (9) Condyle width= greatest
width across condyles.

2BIMD 02—Component Analysis. BIMD Computer Programs Manual,
eon of Biostatistics, School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles.
1961

SBossert, Wm. Analysis of Taxonomic Character Difference. Unpublished
Manuscript. Department of Biology, Harvard University. :

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512, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

distance (standard deviation) between the two means are presented. As
a distance of 2°0 or two standard deviations indicates a significant
difference at the 95% level, it can be seen at once that in no single index
is there a significant difference. Statistically this means that there is
nothing to explain and biologically it implies that the individual
differences explain nothing. As a matter of interest, the same procedure
was performed to compare independently both of the present lion popu-
lations to a series of measurements made on tiger skulls. Again, no
significant differences between individual variables were found.

The third analytical procedure employed was a discriminant analysis. 2
Stated simply, this statistical manoeuvre reduces all the indices of all the
specimens of the respective populations to two numerical values. These
values are, in fact, the means of the distributions of the individual speci-
mens which, similarly, may be represented by single numerical values.
For each of the indices a coefficient of discriminant function is generated.
This coefficient times the means for each of the indices of the respective
populations gives the means of the populations, while the sum of the
products of these coefficients times the indices of a given specimen yields
a value representing the position of that specimen in the population distri-
bution. According to the relationship of the two distributions to one
another, conclusions regarding the significance of difference between the
distributions can be made. In this particular case, the distance between
the means of the two population distributions exceeds 2°0 standard devia-
tions and there is no overlap between the distributions. The conclusion
is, therefore, that in addition to being significantly different at the 95%
level, a perfect discrimination can be made for individuals drawn from
either of the populations compared on the basis of the measurements
taken. Table V shows the distribution given by this analysis while Table
IV gives the means, coefficients of discriminant function, products of these,
and the per cent contribution to the difference between the population
means for the eight products. While these latter calculations cannot be
directly equated to the relative importance of the eight variables used in
the discrimination, they do fairly draw attention to those which contri-
bute most to the discriminating potential. This in turn stimulates
curiosity as to the possible biological significance of the aggregate
differences. Referring to Plate I, the regression lines for all measure-
ments vy. standard length have been plotted. Since the regression line
for any two variables passes simultaneously through the means of the
two variables, that point defines the mean ratio of the two variables.
These mean ratios are, in fact, the indices which are employed in the
discriminant analysis. However, it must be remembered that it is the

1BIMD 05—Discriminant analysis-two groups. .BIMD Computer Programs
Manual, Division of Biostatistics, School of Medicine, University of California, Los
Angeles. 1961.

VARIATION IN THE SKULLS OF GIR LIONS

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514. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

distributions about these means and not the means themselves nor the
regression lines which form the basis of the discrimination between
populations. Hence the differences or similarities between any pair of
regression lines cannot be taken as implying anything about significance,
as shown by the second analysis. Nevertheless, as the aggregate

TABLE V

POPULATION DISTRIBUTIONS GIVEN BY DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS

‘P. leo-African Races’ *P. leo-Gir’
Rank
1 —0°3635
2 —0°3861
3 —0°4066
4 —0°4099
5 —0°4125
6 —0°4237
7 —0°4528
8 —0°4926
9 —0°4978
10 —0°5015
11 —0°5124
12 —0°5141
is —0:5200
14 —0°5282
15 —0°5380
1L6P ox —0°5511
17 —0'5688
18 —0°5696
19 —0°5697
20 —0°5723
21 —0:5907
22 —0°6265
23 —0°6545
24 —0°6600
25 —0°6623
26 —0:6847
27 —0°6945
28 —0°7091
29 —0°7249
30 —0:7250
31 —0:°7474
32 —0°8332 (BNHS 1364)
33 — 09322 (BNHS 1329)
34 —0:9730 (BNHS 1293)
£5) —0°9974 (BNHS 1392)
36 —1:014 (BNHS 1292)
37 —1:067 (BNHS 1393)
38 — 1:067 (BNHS 1353)
39 — 1:07] (BNHS 1255)
40 — 1084 (BNHS 1363)
4] — 1:096 (BNHS 1254)
4? Sette (BNHS 1268)
43 vires, (al 1G bo (BNHS 1267)
44 — 1°134 (BNHS 1389)
45 —]°149 (BNHS 1396)
46 —1:165 (BNHS 1291)
47 —1°203 (BNHS 1391)

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VARIATION IN THE SKULLS OF GIR LIONS 515

differences are significant it is therefore profitable to look at the nature
of the individual differences, especially those which contribute most to
the discriminating potential. In comparing the skulls of the two popu-
lations a differentiation into a facial and cranial portion or neuraxial
and non-neuraxial portion appears. The measurements~ indicate that
the Gir lion tends to be broader but shorter in the facial or non-neuraxial
region than the African lion, while in the cranial or neuraxial region this
tendency is reversed. In Gir lions, the mastoid dimension shows an
interesting pattern when compared to African animals. The smaller
(and presumably younger) Gir specimens are relatively narrower in this
measurement while larger specimens are relatively broader. It would
appear that the mastoid width is determined by a neuraxial influence
(brain size) in younger animals but in progressively more mature indi-
viduals, a non-neuraxial relationship becomes more pronounced as its
development is increasingly influenced by musculature. These observa-
tions suggest that the determination of cranial capacities for the two
populations might yield interesting results.

With regard to non-metrical and inter- and intra-population studies it
is appropriate to consider the following facts at this time. Pocock
(1930), in summarizing the differences between Indian and African lion
skulls, mentions the flatness of the auditory bullae in the former. Among
_ the present sample this distinction is readily apparent. Pocock’s state-
ment, ‘ but beyond question they [the bullae] are in almost all cases
considerably more inflated in African skulls than in the Indian specimens
I have seen’, is perfectly applicable to the present groups. A second
feature which Pocock found remarkable about the Indian lion was the
frequent division of the infraorbital foramen, either unilaterally or bila-
terally, into upper and lower openings which were separated by a bridge
of bone. In African lions such a situation is unknown. In Tables VI
and VII are summarized the condition found in 15 skulls which date
from 1822-1931 and in 19 specimens from the 1963 Sasan ‘ find’. Of the
earlier 15 animals, a total of ten show this peculiarity. Whether
significant or not, it is interesting to note that this trait was manifested
in four out of five skulls recorded for the 19th century, while in ten skulls
described between 1910-1931 it is present in six. Finally, among the
most recent material, 1953-1963 approximately, a divided foramen is
seen in Only 5 out of 185 (as one side of one specimen is missing and one
skull is fragmentary) individuals. At the same time as the incidence of
affected individuals appears to diminish, the extent of the affection also
diminishes. If affected foramina rather than individuals are totalled the
differences become much more striking (? and significant), i.e. 1822- S57,
7/10 or 700%, 1910-1931, 8/20 or 40:0%, 1953-1963, O37 0m le? .
The temptation is great, even if not justified, to speculate that the

condition and its expressivity and/or penetrance are under the influence

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

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VARIATION IN THE SKULLS OF GIR LIONS 517

of only a few polygenes which have shown considerable shifts in frequency
over the past 140 years, possibly due to genetic drift. The pivot point
or bottleneck for population size is around the turn of the century when

TABLE VII

THE CONDITION OF THE INFRAORBITAL FORAMINA IN LIONS OF THE 1963 GIR ‘ FIND’

Condition of infra-

orbital foramina Remarks
Date Locality Museum & Left Right
No.
1 1953- Gir BNHS 1254 Normal Double
1963
2 BNHS 1255 Normal Normal
3 BNHS 1261 Normal Right side broken
away
4 BNHS 1267 Normal Normal
5 BNHS 1268 Normal Normal
6 BNHS 1291 Normal Normal
7 BNHS 1292 Double Normal
8 BNHS 1293 Normal Normal
9 BNHS 1329 Normal Double
10 BNHS 1353 Normal Normal
11 BNHS 1363 Normal Normal
12 “BNHS 1364 Normal Normal
13 BNHS 1389 Normal Normal
14 BNHS 1391 Normal Double
15 BNHS 1392 Normal Normal
16 BNHS 1393 Normal Normal
17 BNHS 1396 Normal Normal
18 BNHS —— Double Double Number notavailable
19 BNHS —— Normal Normal Number not available
20 BNHS —— ——— oa A very broken skull,
no number _§as-

signed

the number of animals dwindled to about 25 and the effective breeding

population might have been as low as half a dozen animals.

Seven

additional skulls not recorded in Table VI are in the collection of
the British Museum. While dates of death are not ascertainable for most
of these, six represent a time span from April 1865 to 1 January 1945.
Among these six there are six divided and six normal foramina. This
frequency of 50% is identical to the cumulative frequency for the 15
animals noted in Table VI for the time span 1822-1931. The seventh
specimen which died in 1951 or 1952 has both infraorbital foramina
normal. As the intra-population studies are pursued, both through
extracting data from older material and through the collection on new
material, these considerations will hopefully be clarified.

An additional feature characteristic of Gir lions as a group is the
variability of the third lower premolar. This variation appears to have
escaped notice in any literature to date. In the African lion Pm3 is

$18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

universally present with two well-developed, distinct roots. Table VIII

tabulates the condition as found in the present sample and’ Plates
TABLE VIII

: THE CONDITION OF PM IN LIONS OF THE 1963 GIR ‘ FIND”
a

Condition of Permanent Lower Third Premolar
Museum & No.
Lets . Right
2 roots fused | absent | 2 roots fused absent
BNHS 1254 1Daf6 | 100%
BNHS 1255 4 xX
BNHS 1261 no left ramus 25%
BNHS 1267 no mandible
BNHS 1268, no mandible
BNHS 1291 100% 100% |
BNHS 1292 100% | ? (tooth broken and
abnormal—perhaps
| slight fusion)
BNHS 1293 xX 4
BNHS 1329 100% X
BNHS 1353 90% 90%
BNHS 1363 50% no right ramus
BNHS 1364 x X
BNHS 1389 xX X
BNHS 1391 100% | ee 00, 0A
BNHS 1392 eager, | XxX
BNHS 1393 no left ramus | 90%
BNHS 1396 100% | -ehOOT,
BNHS ——: XxX xX
BNHS —— deciduous teeth being replaced by permanent
BHHS —— : | 90% | hat | 90%

Norte. X = as per column heading

II-III show X-rays of mandibles in which this tooth is lacking. The latter
is interpreted as a demonstration that the apparent absence of this tooth
is not due simply to a failure to erupt. In one specimen (BNHS 1364) ©
the deciduous alveoli of one side are clearly present but there is no trace
of a permanent replacement tooth. Furthermore, in all cases where Pm3
is absent, the diastema created by the missing tooth appears porous with
surface irregularities and occasionally there is tissue which appears grossly ~
to be enamel although it is not organized into anything resembling a
tooth. Tentatively, it is concluded that the deciduous Pm3 is present
and that no replacement tooth is produced. Twelve of the earlier speci-
mens (American Museum of Natural History, 2; Bombay Natural
History Society, 3; Chicago Museum of Natural History, 1; British
Museum, 6) have this tooth bilaterally, while in three others (British
Museum) there is unilateral reduction to a rudiment. The earliest of
these latter is c, 1910, the other two prior to 1931. Unfortunately the

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VARIATION IN THE SKULLS OF GIR LIONS 519

four earliest known specimens (1822-1833) are no longer available,
for two of them could not be traced by Pocock (1930) and two which were
in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, London, were destroyed
in a bombing of 1941. It can only be presumed that the teeth were bila-
terally present in these specimens as their absence would probably have
been noted. It is more likely that the variation in the root condition of ~
this tooth may have gone unnoticed by previous investigators. In the
specimens thus far seen, a number have not been sufficiently investigated,
as this will require X-ray in order to avoid damage. However, the
Chicago Museum of Natural History specimen shows complete bilateral
fusion of the roots as do a number of British Museum specimens.
Finally, other dental anomalies, such as the fusion of roots of MI have
been noted and will be reported at a later date.

In one form or another the question of the taxonomic position of the
Gir lion is often posed. It would appear from the foregoing considera-
tions, admittedly in need of further detailed study and elaboration, that
this problem is imaginary. It would make as much sense to ask what ts
the taxonomic position of lions in zoological gardens in Europe and North
America. One can only say that the taxonomic status of zoological speci-
mens is peculiar and indeterminate. Similarly goes the argument for
Gir lions. Nevertheless, the present Gir population and its ancestors
and descendants offer an interesting situation in which small population
phenomena may be profitably studied.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This investigation was supported in part by a Public Health Service
Fellowship (No. 1-F2-MH-18,520-01) from The Institute of Mental
Health, Public Health Service. Additional support was given by the
Committee for the Study of Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University.
The assistance and co-operation of the Forest Department of Gujarat
State and the Bombay Natural History Society are gratefully acknow-
ledged. To Dr. William Bossert, Computations Laboratory, Harvard
University, go special thanks for the computer analyses and much
valuable assistance.

SYNOPSIS

1. It is noted that inter-population studies of African and Gir lions
are useful only as a means of detecting peculiarities of the latter. This
arises from the fact that the Gir population has been and still is subject
to small population phenomena.

2. No one of nine skull measurements made discriminates between
African and Gir lions (or between either and tigers).

$20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

3. Ina discriminant analysis, a significant and perfect discrimination
was made between 31 African and 16 Gir lion skulls. This discrimination
is equated roughly to the relatively shorter palatal, broader facial, and
more constricted cranial proportions of the Gir lion.

4. In non-metrical characteristics, two features which are restricted
to, although not universal among, Gir lions are noted. These are the
division of the infraorbital foramen and the variation in development of
the third lower premolar. The general decrease in frequency of foramina
division over the last 140 years is suggested to be related to gene frequency
shifts possibly resulting from genetic drift. The fusion of the roots of
Pm3 is noted to be a common trait in Gir lions, although not previously
reported. The absence of this tooth appears for the first time in a skull
of c. 1910 and appears to have increased in incidence among skulls of
animals which died between approximately 1953-1963.

5. While the taxonomic position of the Gir lion is a meaningless
concept, the population affords an interesting opportunity to study small
population phenomena.

REFERENCES

DHARMAKUMARSINHJI, K. S., & Asia. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 34(3) :

WYNTER-BLYTH, M. A. (1951): The Gir
Forest and its Lions. Part III. VJ.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49(4): 685-694.

*HoeEL, P. G. (1962) : Introduction to
Mathematical Statistics. Wiley & Sons,
Inc., New York.

HOLLIsTER, N. (1917): Some Effects
of Environment and Habit on Captive
Liens. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 53: 177-
193.

*KENDALL, M. G. (1957): A Course
in Multivariate Analysis. Hafner Pub.
Co. New York.

Pocock, R. I. (1930): The Lions of

638-665.

———— (1935): The Story of the
Indian Lion. Asiatic Review, London,
July, 1935.

WYNTER-BLYTH, M. A. (1949): The
Gir Forest and its Lions. Part Il. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48(3) : 493-514.

———— (1951): The Indian Lion.
Oryx 1(2) : 99-101.

———— (1956): The Lion Census of
1955. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53(4) :

527-536.

———, & DHARMAKUMARSINHII,
K. S. (1950) : The Gir Forest and its
Lions. Part II. ibid. 49(3) : 456-470.

* General reference

ha tad
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Sketch showing markings of races of Apus affinis (J. E. Gray) in India

(Diagrammatic)

Notes on Indian Birds 5—
The races of Apus affinis (J. E. Gray)
in the Indian Region

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

(With one plate)

Stuart Baker (1927, FAUNA 4 : 332) accepted four races of the Common
House Swift [Apus affinis (J. E. Gray)] from the Indian Region and drew
attention to the Ceylon birds being very dark. The distribution of the
races was however very unsatisfactorily indicated and led to much con-
fusion among subsequent workers. Ripley (1961, SyNopsis : 210-211)
accepted an additional form ‘from Ceylon and possibly Kerala’, and
remedied to a great extent the distributional limits of the other races.

Recently (1964, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60: 731) I referred to a
swift (A. affinis) blown into Bombay on 11 November 1957, which I
had been unable to name trinomially in Bombay. It was sent to the

_British Museum (Nat. Hist.) whence Mr. J. D. Macdonald wrote :

* Sp. No. 20056 Apus affinis: We are unable to determine with
certainty the race to which this specimen belongs. In size it agrees most |
nearly with subfurcatus of which we have specimen wings 140 and 141 mm.
But it is paler than our specimens of this race and agrees best in tone of
colour with specimens of nipalensis. It very nearly matches typical
affinis except for slightly darker wings and larger size.’

_I have subsequently been able to get together and/or examine some
120 specimens and, though the straggler into Bombay does not fit clearly
into any named group, the general results of the inquiry appear to be
worth recording.

The measurements of the different subspecies or groups referred to are
incorporated in the table below and the accompanying sketch illustrates
the differences in markings between the races referred to in this note.
Supplementary remarks are included under each subspecies.

affinis (J. E. Gray, 1832) (Ganges, restricted to Cawnpore by Stuart
Baker)
Races affinis and galilejensis are separable from the other races by the
upper surface of the tail being appreciably paler than the back. They
have also no fork in the tail.

$22. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

The picture of affinis in ILLUSTRATIONS OF INDIAN ZOOLOGY, which
forms the original description, shows a distinctly pale head and fore-
head and no intense black on the back, but the drawing does not appear
-accurate enough to warrant a subspecific identification thereon. . The
type locality was restricted to Cawnpore by Stuart Baker (loc. cit.), a
fact that is overlooked in the SyNopsis. In the Indian specimens
available, there is some variation in the intensity of body colour and the

amount of grey on the forehead. In most, there is a thin whitish eye-

brow but it is often necessary to ruffle the feathers to make it visible.
There is a slight decline in size from the Punjab in the north to Cuddapah
in the south whence the southernmost specimens are available.

A series of 9 from Mitauri and Hyderabad (Sind), about 80 miles
east of Karachi, agrees with these birds and in size forms a part of the
cline referred to. The white of the rump is wider’ (av. 14 mm.) than in
the Punjab birds (av. 11°6 mm.) which though slightly larger than those
from the south do not appear to show any difference from them in this
character. Birds from Calcutta appear to be nearer in this respect to
those from Hyderabad (Sind) than to those from the Punjab.

Race abessynicus (Streubel) (Massawa) is said to be identical with
affinis and the one specimen which I have seen from Yemen (Arabia)
shows no character which would separate it from Indian birds.

The form occurring in south-west India has still to be determined,

though it is believed to be singalensis.

galilejensis (Antinori, 1855) (Sea of Galilee)

Ticehurst in ‘ Birds of Sind ’ (bis 1923, p. 36) identified the birds from
Karachi as galilejensis, though he said they were a little smaller (wings
131-134 against 132-137); but Whistler & Kinnear (1935, J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 38 : 31), comparing the Punjab birds with those from south
India, said that there was no point in recognising them as separate and
recommended the removal of galilejensis from the Indian list. This was
probably due to their assuming that the Karachi birds would be the same
as those from further north and eastwards in peninsular India.

Fifteen specimens from Karachi and one from the Mekran Coast
can be distinguished from affinis by the much more prominent ashy white
on the forehead and the wider patch of white (av. 14-4 mm.) on the rump.
This last character is retained in the series of 9 birds from Hyderabad
(Sind) (supra) and reappears in 11 adults taken at Calcutta. It is curious
that it should not be apparent in a north-south cline.

The Karachi birds have been accepted as galilejensis, but they differ
from the few topo-typical and other non-Indian Middle East specimens

1 Throughout this paper the ‘width’ of the white patch is measured from front
to rear along the middle of the body.

ii aiaiaiices eee

NOTES ON INDIAN BIRDS NO. 5: THE RACES OF APUS AFFINIS 523

of galilejensis available for examination in that the white on the fore-
head, which varies in extent but is distinctive in most, is formed by white-
tipped feathers creating a very distinct scaly appearance that does not
show in the others—some indeed are almost indistinguishable from
affinis. This character appears in a single specimen from Mt. Abu
(Rajasthan), but a nestling obtained at the same time and place does not
differ from another of the same age from Bombay.

In affinis the black central feathers of the back are longer and mask
the white of the rump in the centre leaving it on an average about 11
to 12 mm. wide against 14 to 15 mm. in galilejensis.

The white eyebrow is more pronounced than in affinis.

singalensis Madarasz, 1911 (Ceylon)

The head and tail are darker than in affinis, the tail being only slightly
paler than the back. In nipalensis and subfurcatus the tail is as dark as
the back. The Ceylon birds differ from nipalensis in having more gloss
on the head and are very similar to subfurcatus except for the shorter tail
(44-6 mm.), more white on the rump (12 mm.), and the less distinctly
forked tail. The white feathers of the chin and rump have dark shafts
more often than in Indian birds, another character shared with
subfurcatus.

Whistler & Kinnear (1935, loc. cit.) said that two specimens from
Travancore agreed with the Ceylon birds rather than with affinis and this
1S possibly the basis of Ripley’s statement quoted earlier.

nipalensis (Hodgson, 1836) (Central region of Nepal, restricted to
Khatmandu by Biswas)

It was described as ‘ sooty black glossed with green’ with no other
characters mentioned to distinguish it from affinis. Stuart Baker (loc.
cit. : 332) said that it differed from affinis in having the crown and fore-
head all brown against grey, not white, in affinis. He added that it
was a much darker bird than affinis and galilejensis and he extended its
range southwards to Mysore, Travancore, and Cochin. The form in the
south-west has yet to be identified but, even if it is found to be similar to
nipalensis, the distribution is certainly broken in peninsular India, which
is occupied by affinis. The description is generally correct, but in some
of the specimens from Nepal (which include old specimens labelled sub-
furcatus) the back is dark brownish and does not show the green gloss
mentioned in the original description. Three specimens from the British
Museum (Nat. Hist.) have dark glossy backs and brown heads, indicating
that the specimens retained in India have either faded and lost this colour
or they represent a juvenile plumage of a nature which does not show
itself in galilejensis or affinis. ,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

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NOTES ON INDIAN BIRDS NO. 5: THE RACES OF APUS AFFINIS 525

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TABLE OF MEASUREMENTS (in mm.) OF RACES OF Apus affinis S

ee 5
A 2

No. of . F 5 F White on rump RS
ne Particulars of specimens Wing Tail (measured along middle of &

specimens body)

3 we ——— S
=~

i &

affinis x

. x

6 Punjab, Delhi (1) 130-135 ay. 132°5 40-43 av. 416 11-13 ay. 116 z

18 Rajasthan, Gujarat, Kutch, Bombay, Indore, 5
Cuddapah, Darbhanga 123-132 av. 127°5 37-43 av. 40:2 8-15 av. 11:3 S

6 Juveniles (only two measured) 85, 63 39, 38 —— =

17 Calcutta 124-132 ay. 129 38-44 ay. 41 12-17 ay. 14:5 x

(7 measured) (15 measured) (11 measured) a

9 Mitauri and Hyderabad (Sind) 56 123-132 av. 129°8 39-44 ay. 41:5 13-16 ay. 14 B

galilejensis By

. ou

10 Palestine, Middle East, Shiraz (1) oi 130-135 ay. 132°5 40°5-45 ay. 42°4 12-17 ay. 14°7 eet
16 Karachi (several in moult) and Mekran (1) . . 123-132 av. 127 39-42 av. 40°6 12-17 ay. 14-4 =

singalensis s

6 Ceylon 127-130 ay. 129°3 43-45 ay. 44:6 10-13 ay. 12

a _——— -———
Sk
—-—_—__——————— ~~

subfurcatus
=
3 Pahang (2), Malacca :
, Malacca i 135 9- 140 ¢ av. 137°5 E a
oe 5 49-54 ay. 51
nner Gulf of Siam . 1259-1308 av. 127 ai SavaviGs) Sis neta ce eS
ie}
nipalensis :
=
6 K
hatmandu, Nepal 0A 128-137 ay. 132-3 42-46 ay. 44 10-13 ay. 12°4 g
16 N
Spal: (gee, Aahae 1961, J. Bombay nat. Hist. 132-138 av. 133 42-49 ay. 45 ? 2
- (one with 118 mm. wing is : w
excluded) Es
Race/Races uncertain 5
3 Kurseong (2), Terai S
Gialvminioan na 128-135 ay. 131 41-43 av. 42 8-10 (tails appear tucked in) ©
ra
J Darjeeling, ¢ with gloss on head ie 133 44 15 =
4 Migrants (?) to Samastipur (Darbh:
jemand Miatacashta)) and Kees s
is
sa) (2) aA 132-139 ay. 135 46-49 ay. 47°7 11-13 ay. 12 6
1 Haflong, North Cachar 2
c 6 135 48 12 S
1 Bombay (straggler) a0 143 48 9 a
Sa Er ee eee &
Note.—As there appears to be no diff in si 2
n erence in size between the sexes, the limited number of measurements are tabulated together. 5 Fi
zZ
a
“vA
&

526 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

Hodgson, with the original description, said that it remained in Nepal
the whole year. The distribution of this race outside Nepal is uncertain
and most records from outside Nepal are very confused. It was listed in
the synonymy of affinis both by Jerdon (1870, BIRDS OF INDIA) and Blan-
ford (1895, FAUNA), which resulted in everything that did not agree with
affinis being labelled ‘ subfurcatus’ including specimens from Nepal,
Chanda (C.P., now Maharashtra), Kendrapara (Orissa), Samastipur
(Darbhanga, Bihar), and Haflong in Assam.

While the birds from Nepal can be accepted as nipalensis, the others
are dealt with as a separate group in the table of measurements.

subfurcatus (Blyth, 1849) (Penang)

This was separated from affinis as ‘ larger, deeper coloured, with tail
feathers conspicuously more pointed and the outermost measuring 4”
longer than the middle, wing 54” [133 mm.], tail 2§” [54 mm.].
General colour [including head—H.A.] much blacker than in affinis,
the upper and lower tail coverts being quite black ; the white band on the
tail is narrower and less purely white, and the white of the throat is also
less pure’. It is also specifically said to be non-migratory. Two fresh
specimens from Pahang (Malaya), which is not very far from the type
locality, tally entirely with this description. The colour plate in
Robinson’s BIRDS OF MALAY PENINSULA (1927, 1: 126) shows a-brown
head and is probably based on a foxed specimen.

Race/Races uncertain

The birds from north-eastern India have either shorter tails or non-
glossy heads, and do not agree with subfurcatus. They fall into the
following groups : :

(a) A single specimen recently (1959) collected at Darjeeling differs
from nipalensis in having a dark glossed head, but its broad white rump
(15 mm.) and shorter tail (44 mm.) separate it from subfurcatus.

(5) Three others from the neighbourhood [Kurseong (2) and Terai
(1)] are similar to nipalensis in size and colour, but lack the gloss on the
back. All are more than 50 years old and may have faded.

(c) Four birds with dark tails from non-Himalayan areas
[Samastipur (Darbhanga), Kendrapara (Orissa), and Chanda
(Maharashtra)] average slightly larger than nipalensis and have dis-
tinctly longer (46-49 mm.) tails. The one from Chanda is noted in
Blanford’s FAUNA as subfurcatus. These are believed to be migrants
to the area—another specimen, which I collected from a nesting colony
in Chanda District, is certainly affinis.

(d) One bird, 17 May 1904, from Haflong (North Cachar) agrees
with those in (c). Earlier, Stuart Baker (1897, J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 10 : 544) referred to the resident birds of North Cachar as subfurcatus

NOTES ON INDIAN BIRDS NO. 5: THE RACES OF APUS AFFINIS 527

and spoke of one obtained in the extreme north of the district as being
very dark and having a ‘ rather longer tail than usual ’.

(e) The bird blown into Bombay is not faded and the brown on the
head is quite different from the black of subfurcatus. The long tail links
it with (c) and (d) above and, as both nipalensis and subfurcatus are said
to be resident at their type localities, it is possible that this specimen
together with those in the last two groups with dark tails but browner
heads represent an unnamed migrant form, breeding in eastern Assam.

It would appear from this that subfurcatus should be removed from
the Indian list, a proposal with which Dr. S. Dillon Ripley agreed when
a draft of this note was sent to him.

GENERAL REMARKS

A few other points arising out of this inquiry may be worth noting:

(1) In no Indian race do the sexes show any difference in colour
or size, and their measurements are listed together. Of the pair of sub-
furcatus from Pahang (Malaya), the male has a wing 5 mm. longer than
the female. A similar difference is seen in 4 specimens from the inner
Gulf of Siam. La Touche, 1934, HANDBOOK OF BIRDS OF EASTERN CHINA
(2: 93), refers to males having ‘ wings 140-146 and females 136, 137’.
The number of males is not mentioned but apparently only two females
were measured.

(2) Fhe black in old skins has foxed, and the older specimens are
browner than the more recent ones. The relative differences in the
depth of colour on the head, back, and tail, however, remain constant
and this character can continue to be used to differentiate the races re-
ferred to. |

(3) Young (nestlings and flying juveniles) affinis and galilejensis,
which are the only forms available, have white edges to the flight
feathers.

(4) In affinis the tail grows-relatively quicker than the wing. Two
chicks, with wings only 85 mm. and 63 mm, (adult average 131) have their
tails almost full grown, 39 and 38 mm. respectively (adult average 41).

(5) The swifts in Sikkim and other areas in the north-east area are
generally said to be absent from about November to February, but it
must be remembered that Stevens (1925, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 30:
676) said that the birds at Gopaldara and Nurbong 2050 ft. (both not far
from Kurseong) remain there the whole year, though during the cold
weather ‘ they are absent for the whole day ....and pairs return to the
nests between 4-50 and 5-30 p.m., almost simultaneously ’,

528 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am indebted to the University of Tel Aviv, the Berlin, Colombo,
and British Museums, and the Zoological Survey of India for loan of
specimens, to the Zoological Survey of Pakistan for arranging to collect
series from Karachi, Mitauri, and Hyderabad (Sind), and to Lord
Medway for two specimens of subfurcatus.

SUMMARY

It has not been possible to identify racially a swift Apus affinis ob-
tained storm-tossed in Bombay. After an examination of the material
available, it is suggested that: (a) this specimen may represent an un-
described migratory race breeding in north-eastern India; (b) A. a.
subfurcatus should be removed from the Indian avifauna.

In Memoriam

ROBERT BERESFORD SEYMOUR SEWELL

Lieutenant-Colonel R. B. Seymour Sewell, C.1.£., M.A., Sc.D. (Cantab.),
M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. (Eng.), I.M.S. (retd.), was born on 5th March 1880. He
was educated in Weymouth College and Christ’s College, Cambridge,
and received his medical training in St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, London.
He was commissioned as a member of the Indian Medical Service in
February 1908 and arrived in India in September 1908. He served as
Medical Officer with the 34th Sikh Pioneers for two years when, on being
selected for civilian assignment, he was appointed as officiating Surgeon
Naturalist, Marine Survey of India, from 24th September 1910. In this

post he was confirmed from 4th January 1911, and continued to hold it
— except for a short period when he officiated as the Professor of Biology,
Medical College, Calcutta. In October 1914 he was recalled for military
service. - He served as Medical Officer with the 23rd Sikh Pioneers from
1914 to 1918 and was mentioned in Despatches for services rendered.
Afterashort spell of furlough on medical grounds in 1918-19, he reverted
to his substantive appointment as Surgeon Naturalist in April 1919 and,
except for officiating as Superintendent, Zoological Survey of India, in
1919-20, continued to hold this post till he was appointed Director,
Zoological Survey of India, on probation for one year from 27th July
1925. He was confirmed as the Director after the period of probation
and continued to hold this post till he went on long leave preparatory to
retirement in April 1933. In 1930 he served as President of the
Committee constituted to review and report on the progress of the Indian
Institute of Science, Bangalore. His retirement from the Indian Medical
Service in 1935 coincided with his retirement from the civilian appoint-
ment. En passant it is of interest to note that out of some 25 years of
service Col]. Sewell worked as a medical officer (sensu stricto) for not more
than six years and the remainder of his service was devoted to hydro-
graphic, marine zoological, and anthropological studies.

During his leave preparatory to retirement he was selected to lead the
John Murray Expedition to the Arabian Sea on board the Egyptian vessel
Mabahiss for carrying out detailed hydrographic and biological investi-
gations in addition to studying the deep-sea fauna of the area; its reports,
under the title THE SCIENTIFIC REPORTS OF THE JOHN MURRAY EXPEDITION
1933-34, were issued under the editorship of Col. Sewell.

After his return from this expedition Col. Sewell settled down in
Cambridge, and had a room in the Zoological Laboratory of the

530 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

University where he carried on active research till about a year before his
death on 10th February 1964 at the age of eighty-three.

Under the title FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA 4 series of zoological systematic
monographs was prepared and published under the authority of the
Secretary of State for India from 1880. In 1933, after Lt.-Col. John
Stephenson died, Col. Sewell was appointed as the editor of this series.
The Second World War brought to a stop all activities in this connection,
but Col. Sewell continued actively with the preparatory work in the hope
of resuming publication after the war. After Independence, however,
the name of the series was changed to FAUNA OF INDIA and its editorship,
except for the volumes already sanctioned, was transferred to the Director,
Zoological Survey of India.

In 1945 Col. Sewell was invited by the Government of India, Ministry
of Agriculture, to come to India and make recommendations for the
reorganization and expansion of the Zoological Survey of India. He
came towards the end of 1945, and submitted a detailed memorandum
dealing with the future and all aspects of the work of the Survey. At the
request of the same Ministry he also prepared a detailed memorandum on
the proposed Fishery Research Institute in the country.

His scientific work covered a very wide field, from Physical Anthro- —
pology to Zoological taxonomic work on various groups, Marine Biology,
and Oceanography. His outstanding contributions in the various fields
are briefly reviewed in the following paragraphs.

In Physical Anthropology, he in collaboration with Dr. B. S. Guha
published valuable memoirs on prehistoric human remains from (i) Nal
excavated by H. Hargreaves (Mem. Arch. Surv. of India No. 35, 1929) ;
(ii) Mekran remains recovered by Sir Aurel Stein (idem No. 43, 1931) ;
and (iii) Mohenjo-daro remains excavated during 1923-27 (MOHENJO-
DARU AND THE INDUS CIVILIZATION 2, 1931). Asa result of these studies
the authors concluded that during Chalcolithic times in the Indus Valley
and in Baluchistan the chief racial types consisted of ‘ the Mediterranean
strain, a large-brained long-headed type of possible Proto-Nordic
affinities ’ similar to those existing at Kish and Al’Ubaid in pre-Sargonic
Sumeria. The origin of man and the population of India in the past and
future formed the subject of Col. Sewell’s address as President of the
Anthropological Section of the 16th Session of the Indian Science
Congress at Madras in 1929. In this address he put forward the hypo-
thesis that the causative factor of brachycephaly in man was probably
his ‘ living in high altitudes in the formative period of man’s life-history’.
A further contribution along the same lines was his address as the Genera]
President of the 18th Session of the Indian Science Congress at Nagpur
in 1931, in which he discussed certain modifications of bodily structures
in so far as these can be regarded as evolutionary problems,

IN MEMORIAM 531

Here may also be mentioned Col. Sewell’s detailed report on the pre-
historic animal remains excavated at Mohenjo-daro during 1923-27
(MOHENJO-DARU AND THE INDUS CIVILIZATION 2, Ch. 31, 1931).

Since 1884, investigations on the deep-sea fauna of the Indian Ocean
became possible as a result of the sounding and dredging gear which had
been used by the Challenger expedition being presented for work by
R.I.M.S.S. Investigator, and such investigations were carried out more
or less regularly by the successive Surgeon Naturalists attached to this
vessel. As dredging and trawling constituted only a subsidiary function
of the Survey vessel, and as such occupied only an insignificant part of the
Surgeon Naturalist’s time, a major change in the programme of work was
decided upon. Consequently a systematic survey of the hydrographic
conditions and of the planktonic organisms, especially surface-living
Copepods, was started by Captain Sewell (as he then was) from the
Survey Season of 1910-11, and this was continued with interruptions from
time to time'till his relinquishment of that office in 1925. During the
first season of his holding this office a mid-water-trawl was designed and
constructed in the R.I.M. Dockyard at Bombay, which enabled detailed
work to be undertaken on the mid-water fauna of the area—these lines
of work had hitherto been neglected.

_ The results of the geographical and oceanographical researches
carried out by Col. Sewell were published in a series of papers during
1925-29 (Mem. As. Soc. Bengal 9). This work constituted a detailed
study of the conditions under which the marine fauna exist in the Indian
Ocean. ‘It deals mainly with the geography, the nature of the sea-bed
and its deposits, the temperature and salinity of the coastal and surface
waters, of the Andaman sea in relation to the adjacent waters like the
Bay of Bengal and the Laccadive sea, and the marine meteorology of the
Indian seas as a whole. It shows conclusively that the physical condi-
tions of the sea are in an almost continuous state of flux due to influences
both within and without its geographical limits, and must be effecting
profound changes in the character of the fauna, and that the study of the
physical conditions is an integral part of the bionomics of any given arm
of the ocean or the sea whatever its size or geographical position.’ An
offshoot of the same type of work was his joint paper with Dr.
N. Annandale on ‘ The Hydrography and Invertebrate Fauna of the
Rambha Bay of Chilka Lake on the Orissa Coast ’ (Mem. Ind. Mus. 5,
1922). In an abnormal year such as the one during which the investi-
gations were carried out by the authors, it was found that in this lake of
undoubted marine origin a few freshwater forms had established them-
selves, while the estuarine species were similar to those of the Gangetic
delta and the lagoons of the Indian coasts. The occurrence of the truly
marine species was only seasonal. ‘The most striking features of the
fauna of the lake are the abundance of individuals and paucity of species,

532. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

and the extraordinary adaptability of the permanent residents to the
physical changes in their environment.’

Research on the surface-living Copepods was begun with the Survey
Season of 1910-11, and the first two papers on the surface-living Copepods
of the Bay of Bengal (pts. i, ii) and of the Gulf of Mannar were published —
in 1912 (Rec. Ind. Mus. 7) and in 1914 (Spolia Zeylanica 9). A com-
prehensive account of the Copepoda of Chilka Lake was published in 1924
(Mem. Ind. Mus. 5), while the detailed monographic work on the Cope-
pods of the Indian Seas was published during 1929-32 (Mem. Ind. Mus.
10). Asa result of these detailed studies he concluded ‘ that much of the
apparent difference between surface and littoral Copepod fauna of the
Indian and Atlantic oceans was due to the lack of knowledge, and such
differences as exist were to be attributed to the presence in the latter of
indigenous forms evolved in that area and to the total absence of connect-
ing passages between the tropical or temperate regions of the Atlantic,
the Pacific and the Indian oceans.’ A further continuation of the same
work was the systematic account of the Copepods collected by the John
Murray Expedition (THE SCIENTIFIC REPORTS OF THE JOHN MURRAY
EXPEDITION 1933-34 8, 1947), and on the embionts and parasites of the
Copepods of the same area in 1951( (idem 9).

In 1924 he published an interesting paper on the growth of some
marine molluscs, such as Littorina (Rec. Ind. Mus. 26), and in 1926 was
published a detailed account of the Salps of the Bay of Bengal and the
Arabian Sea (idem 28). The same year appeared an interesting account
of the variations in the external characters of the several so-called species
of the barnacle genus Lithotrya, in which he showed that all these species
were only stages in growth of, or varieties and life phases of, a single
species Lithotrya nicobarica (idem 28).

In connection with the possible introduction and spread of Schisto-
somiasis in India from war theatres in the Middle-and Far-East, he carried
out an extensive programme of research on the Cerceriae found in Indian
freshwater molluscs. His comprehensive monograph on the subject
was published in 1922 Und. Journ. Med. Res. 10, Supplement), while
as a result of his detailed studies of the excretory system in the cercariae
he ‘ advanced the view that furcocercous cercariae were of polyphyletic
origin, and the evolution of the Monostome by the suppression of the
acetabulum has occurred on more than one occasion and in different
lines of evolution’ (Rec. Ind. Mus. 32, 1930).

Before being forced by ill health to stop active work in 1963, Col.
Sewell was engaged in preparing a volume on Indian Copepoda for the
FAUNA OF INDIA series.

Col. Sewell was connected with various Scientific Societies, and served
as the Vice-President and President of the Asiatic Society, Calcutta, the
Ray Society, London, and the Linnean Society of London. He was a

IN MEMORIAM a30

Fellow of the Asiatic Society, Calcutta, National Institute of Sciences of
India, Linnean Society of London, Zoological Society, London, and was
elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society, London, in 1934. He was also
a Corresponding Member of the Academy of Natural Sciences,
Philadelphia, U.S.A.

His services were recognized by the Government of India by the
award of the title of C.1.£. in 1933, and he was awarded the Barclay
Memorial Medal by the Asiatic Society, Calcutta, in 1932.

Col. Sewell was a Life Member of the Bombay Natural History
Society, having joined as a member on 8th October 1910.

Col. Sewell devoted over half a century of his life to advancing our
knowledge of Indian Zoology, Oceanography, and Physical Anthropology,
and he will be greatly missed by his large circle of friends and admirers.

BAINI PRASHAD

Reviews

1. CARNIVAL UNDER THE SEA. By René L. A. Catala.
Translated from the French. Edited and published by R. Sicard. pp. 121
(27°521 cm.). 27 plates with coloured photographs and 48 black-
and-white photographs and diagrams. Paris 1964.

The book is mainly an account of the rare deep-sea animals that
have been assembled by the author and his wife Madame Catala-Stucki
in the Marine Biology Station and the Aquarium of Noumea (New-
Caledonia, South Pacific), and partly a preliminary account of the results
of the author’s fruitful investigations into the biological phenomenon
of fluorescence of deep-sea corals and certain other coelenterates, marine
worms, and echinoderms. In the introduction the author cautions the
readers that ‘ the book does not pretend to be a scientific treatise... ,
[but] is intended for the reader who is curious about the beauties of the
marine fauna...’. A documentary film on the same subject, bearing
the same title as this book, has also been prepared by the author.

The text begins with a brief but clear description of the Noumea
Aquarium and the special arrangements made in it for keeping the animals
under the artificial conditions of a laboratory. The next few chapters of
the book deal exclusively with live corals. Short but precise accounts
of the different types of coral reefs, the different ways of their formation,
their nematocysts (minute, projectile, stinging cells with a complex
structure that are situated on the tentacles of these animals), their symbiotic
association with Zooxanthellae (microscopic algae which provide the
corals with an important amount of oxygen), the different methods of
reproduction of the corals, and a somewhat detailed account of the
fluorescence of the deep-sea forms are included in the book.

The fluorescent property of corals was discovered accidentally by the

author in the late fifties, and since then the author and his wife have been
in hot pursuit of its secrets. The Aquarium, according to the author, is
the only one in the world to exhibit live specimens of corals to the public
and to conduct research for finding out the biological properties of their
fluorescence. After reading the interesting account of the fluorescent
properties of corals, the question that remained uppermost in the mind
of the reviewer was ‘ What could be the adaptive value of fluorescence
for these animals?’ Attempts to find out the answer from this book
were of no avail. It is to be hoped that this most important facet of the
study will be given its due importance in the detailed account of the
fluorescence which the author intends to publish at a later date,

a ea

REVIEWS 535

The outstanding feature of the book is undoubtedly the numerous
magnificent colour photographs of corals and other marine animals, the
live specimens of which have never before been photographed or exhibited
to the public. The many photographs showing the difference between
the ‘ normal’ daylight colours of live parts of corals and the colours of
the same specimens when the fluorescent substance in their ecto- or
endodermal cells is induced by ultra-violet rays, which causes them to
fluoresce, as also those showing the remarkable changes in the colour
of the fish Coris angulata Lacépéde as it metamorphoses (Plate XXVII,
Figs. 2-5), and again those depicting different types of biological associa-
tion between animals including instances of ‘ reciprocal cannibalism ’
between two species of solitary corals, and the symbiotic association
between the fish Amphiprion and species of sea-anemone are all, indeed,
exciting. The explanatory captions of these photographs and diagrams,
if given along with the diagrams, instead of being listed at the end of the
book as has been done here, would have been much more convenient to
the readers.

The vivid descriptions of behavioural patterns of many invertebrates,
such as coelenterates (Fungia’s walking habit), starfish Luidia’s various
postures (p. 57), the octopus’s (the plural form of octopus is octopuses
and not octopi) habit of removing the remains of its meal as far away
from its lair as possible, the ‘ amazing reflex’ of the Ranina crabs when
two specimens meet each other, etc., should be of great interest to
students of ethology. |

The reviewer takes strong exception to the use by the author of the
word ‘intelligence’ to explain the above-mentioned behaviour of the
octopus. It is well known that many seemingly intelligent reactions of
‘lower’ (phylogenetically) animals are performed by them instinctively
and the instinctive behavioural patterns being adaptive in nature, just
like adaptive structural and physiological modifications, are also in-
herited by the offspring and become a part of the behavioural repertoire
of the animals. Expressions such as ‘ How intelligent Octopi are!’
(p. 74) and ‘ intelligent behaviour of Fish ’ (chapter XV), which are clear
attempts to attribute complex adaptive instinctive behavioural patterns
to the non-existent (?) ‘intelligence’ of animals, made even in a book
‘that ‘does not pretend to be a scientific treatise’, are misleading and
should be avoided. The expression * amazing reflex ’ (p. 86) used by the
author in describing the behaviour of the Ranina crab is, once again,
misleading. :

The text, written in unostentatious style, is simple, free from for-
bidding zoological terminology, nevertheless quite informative. The
liberal sprinkling of the author’s pleasing good humour has made the
reading of the book an extremely pleasant experience. His love and

536 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

enthusiasm for the subjects of his studies are clearly manifest throughout
the text.

The general get-up of the book, i.e. the smooth high quality paper,
the clear bold letters, and the wonderful photographs and diagrams are
excellent. But the standard of the English leaves much to be desired.
Further, the havoc played by the printer’s devil is rather conspicuous.
For instance, pp. 73-74 of the book, taken up by the reviewer as a random
sample, contain not less than fourteen printing errors, which number is
of course just too big for making it a good book. Even the very few
technical terms used in the book [mesogloea as mesoglee (p. 20) and
Phylum as phyllum (p. 80)] are usually misspelt.

Despite these shortcomings, the book on the whole is to be regarded
as an excellent praiseworthy effort. The reviewer is inclined to agree
with Jean Rostand’s opinion (expressed by him in the preface of the
book) that ‘the wealth of information in the text and the unequalled
brilliance of its illustrations will delight naturalists, inspire painters,
stimulate the imagination of poets and add to everyone’s knowledge ’.
The book is strongly recommended to ‘ the reader who is curious about
the beauties of the marine fauna’ and to school and college libraries in
particular.

P. KANNAN

2. THE YEAR OF THE GORILLA. By George B. Schaller.
pp. 287 (21°5<14:5 cm.). With 24 plates. London 1965. Collins.
Price 30s.

In THE MOUNTAIN GORILLA (reviewed in the Journal 62: 133) George
Schaller described his field study of the Gorilla in the Congo. This |
book is a personal narrative of his stay in the gorilla habitat, the country
he travelled through, the people he met, and the animals, the gorilla and
others, he saw and studied during his eighteen-month stay.

The project, initiated by Dr. Emlen of the University of Wisconsin
who accompanied Schaller for the first six months, was sponsored by the
New York Zoological Society. It had as its objectives a survey of the
gorilla habitat for an assessment of the distribution of the species and
intensive field study in a selected area to gather information on an animal
which was known more by legends than by facts, a study of whose be-
haviour could give some clues to human behaviour and to the forces
‘that reach thro’ nature, moulding men’.

The book, after a brief review of the available information on the
Gorilla, gives a very readable and interesting account of the journey
through the gorilla habitat during the first six months to study the distri-
bution of the species in the Kivu Province of Congo and the adjoining

REVIEWS 537

areas of Uganda. For the next twelve months, Schaller and his wife
stayed in a small hut in a high mountain valley in the Albert National
Park of the Congo, away from the ‘ incessant noise and other irrelevant
stimuli of civilization ’ but close to the gorillas which lived in the near-by
forests. His patient endeavours to know them, and to let them know that
he meant no harm, succeeded and he was able to accustom several gorilla
groups to his presence, making individual recognition of each member of
each group possible. Not only the gorilla but also other animals and
birds in the area, like the pair of ravens that became tame enough to -eat
out of Mrs. Schaller’s hands, are described with a sympathy, genuine
and unsentimental.

It is rather saddening to realize that the Gorilla receives little
stimulus to change and adapt, living as it does amongst abundant food
and no enemies to speak of. It is asif the gorilla has found what man,
in spite of the assurances of his religions and political parties, is, fortu-
nately for him, still striving to find, the Garden of Eden. The Gorilla,
it appears, is an animal well on the road to extinction, unless man is
magnanimous enough to preserve its ecological niche. The chances
seem to be slim.

J.C.D.

3. CLIMATOLOGY: An Introduction. By J. Bucknell. pp.
xi1-+ 163 (22145 cm.). With 195 diagrams. London and New York
1964. Macmillan and Co. Ltd. Price 18s. net.

This book intended to serve as an elementary text book in climatology
is written by a Geographer for high school and first year university geo-
graphy students possessing some knowledge of elementary meteorology ;
but it should prove useful to scientists in other disciplines, and to the
common man interested in a simple but comprehensive summary of the
climates of the world.

The theoretical background is presented in simple language in the
first two chapters which deal with the causes and characteristics of
climate and the energy and movements of the atmosphere. These
chapters naturally suffer from slight inaccuracies arising from over-
simplification and, although some details of contents and presentation
may be criticized, on the whole the presentation is instructive.

The third chapter deals with the classification of climates, a much
debated subject. After briefly describing earlier methods, and K6ppen’s
and Thornthwaite’s classifications based on types of vegetation, the
author describes Miller’s method finally adopted in the book.

The next eight chapters describe in very readable language the main
climates of the world, viz, the hot climates, tropical climates, monsoon

538 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

climates, desert climates, warm temperate climates, cool temperate cli-
mates, cold and arctic climates, and mountain climates. The book is
written for the British student and the treatment suffers from being
addressed to a limited audience. The description of the Indian monsoon
contains common errors present in even more advanced treatises.

The last chapter deals with climate and vegetation, followed by ques-
tions and exercises and a comprehensive bibliography.

The text is accompanied by numerous graphs, maps, and diagrams,
which in general are a model of clear presentation. It would have been
more helpful if some of the legends had been more complete, since much
seems to have been taken for granted.

The author and the publishers are to be complimented on the produc-
tion of a handy volume in which the elements of climatology are clearly
and attractively presented.

(Dr. Miss) A. MANI

a a

Miscellaneous Notes

I. CAN YOUNG BATS COMMUNICATE WITH THEIR
PARENTS AT A DISTANCE ?

At about 9-30 a.m. a few days ago, my orderly smoked out a dozen
or so pipistrelles from behind the wooden panel of our electric meter.
The bats flew aimlessly about in the bright sunshine and 3 small young
bats fell to the ground under the meter. I had them picked up and
placed in a hedge about 25 yards away to save them from crows and
other predators. When I went out for a walk at about 5.30 p.m. they
were still there.

At about 6.45 p.m. the same evening, the bats made a couple of
sorties into the verandah but, instead of alighting on the panel, they flew
to the hedge where the young lay. I did not see them carry away the
young, but when the place was examined a few minutes later the young
were gone,

A specimen of the pipistrelle was later identified at the Society as
Pipistrellus mimus Wroughton, 1899.

New DELHI, MaAsor A. DAVID
August 26, 1965.

[The incident reported suggests interesting possibilities of high frequ-
ency vocal communication, inaudible to the human ear, between bats.
Brosset (J. Bombay nat. Hist, Soc. 59 : 722) refers to the absence of any
breeding records in this species from Indian limits; the present
observation is interesting in this respect also.—Eps. |

2. NOTES ON THE HAIR OF SOME BATS
(With a text figure)

INTRODUCTION

Although hair is one of the characteristic features of mammals there
is not much work done so far on the detailed structure of the mammalian
hair and there is no record of specific differences in the structure
of the hair among related species. Our attention was drawn to this

S40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

problem while examining the stomach contents of a cannibalistic bat,
which invariably included a certain type of hair. During the preliminary
examination it was possible to identify these hairs as belonging to the
same species and specific differences were noticed in the detailed structure
of the hair in different species of bats. This paper presents some
observations on the structure of the abdominal hair of five species of
bats locally available in and around Aurangabad, one species of
Megachiroptera, namely Rousettus leschenaulti (Pteropidae), and four
species of Microchiroptera, namely Taphozous melanopogon (Emball-
onuridae), and Hipposideros bicolor (Hipposideridae), Megaderma lyra
lyra (Megadermatidae), and Pipistrellus ceylonicus (Vespertilionidae).

From each species some hairs were pulled out with forceps from the
middle of the abdominal region. They were examined while fresh under
the microscope and subsequently permanent unstained microscopic
preparations were made for detailed examination.

Rousettus Taphozous Hip posideros

eee
Ni ape

Mecaderma Pipistrellus

EEE |
~ 0:05 mm.

1. Abdominal hair of Rousettus leschenaulti x c.240; 2. Hair of Taphozous melano-
pogon X c. 520; 3. Hair of Hipposideros bicolor. The distal region: is oriented
downwards x c. 520; 4. Hair of Megaderma lyra lyraxc. 520; 5. Hair of
Pipistrellus ceylonicus x c. 520. -

OBSERVATIONS

The general appearance of the hair in different species varies conside-
rably. In all Taphozous the cortical and medullary regions of the hair
can be made out. In Rousettus and Hipposideros the cortical region is
exceedingly thin. In all the species the hair is scaly, but there are
differences in the size, structure, and disposition of the scales.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 541

Scales

In all the species except Pipistrellus the scales are arranged at almost
even and regular intervals in the longitudinal axis of the hair, giving
the hair a segmented appearance. In all, the scales are distally pointed.
In Rousettus and Taphozous the scales are long, sharp, and pointed. In
Pipistrellus, which has relatively the longest scales, they are blunt. In
Megaderma the scales are very short. In these four species the scales
are arranged in circles around the axis of the hair. In Hipposideros the
segmented appearance is due to the expansion of the cortex at the distal
rim of each segment so that typical scaly overlaps are not present in this
species as in the others.

Pigmentation

The pigmentation of the hair varies. Although basically the pigmenta-
tion of the hair in each species is the same throughout its length,
different regions of the hair may have different intensities and distribution
of the pigment. In Rousettus fine pigment granules are evenly distributed
throughout the length of the hair. The pigments occur even at the base
of the scales leaving only the tips free from pigmentation. The intensity
of pigmentation does not vary much along the length of the hair. In
Taphozous the pigment occurs in alternating segments of light and dark
areas thus accentuating the segmented appearance of the hair in this
species. The pigments are of two consistencies, namely (i) very fine
granules which occur in a closely packed manner, and (il) thicker granules
dispersed unevenly throughout the length of the hair. In this species the
general pigmentation is more pronounced towards the distal region of
the hair than towards the base, so that it has a more pronounced
segmented appearance towards the distal region than towards the
proximal region. In the proximal region of the hair the lighter areas
are relatively more extensive than the darker areas. In Hipposideros
there is, in addition to the even distribution of fine pigment granules,
additional accumulation of pigment granules in longitudinal bands. If
one examines the entire length of the hair of Hipposideros one notices
that the amount of pigment differs at different iengths. At the very
base it is thickly pigmented followed by a short region with very little
pigment, and again a short region with thick pigmentation followed by
the tip region of scanty pigmentation. In Megaderma the pigmentation
is most characteristic. In this species the pigment occurs as distinct
blocks in a longitudinal series, and these blocks approximately coincide
with the segments of the hair marked out by the scales. Each block of
pigment consists of two distinct regions, a proximal thick dark part,
which appears like a cubical block, on the distal end of which there is a
lighter pigmented cylindrical zone with a distinct unpigmented hollow
cavity in the centre. The margin of the cylindrical region is serrated.

542 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

The entire pigmented block can be compared, in appearance, toa
badminton shuttlecock with a solid mass at the base and a conical
hollow feathery cylinder attached to it distally. Although the basic
pattern of pigmentation in Megaderma is the same throughout the length
of the hair, the relative sizes of the two parts of each pigmented segment
vary at different regions of the hair. In the proximal region the dark
part is extensive and the lighter part is short, and progressively, as one
examines the length of the hair towards the tip, the lighter part becomes
more and more pronounced. Thus, at about the middle of the length
of the hair the two parts are equi-extensive, whereas at the very tip of
the hair the darker blocks are almost insignificant. In Pipistrellus the
hair has a central core of thick pigmentation and a peripheral lighter
zone. The pigment occurs in three conditions—fine pigment granules
mostly occurring closely packed in the central core, and also, in some
scales, thicker pigment granules scattered throughout the hair including
the bases of the scales, and thick longitudinal filamentous pigment
arranged parallel to the longitudinal axis of the hair. In this species the
entire length of the hair has almost the same type of pigmentation.

The accompanying camera lucida drawings illustrate the structure of
the hair in the-five species studied here.

CONCLUSIONS

With the meagre knowledge at our disposal it is not possible at this
stage to state if the hair characters can be used as a taxonomic criterion. If
a large number of species are studied from this point of view, we may be
able to draw conclusions regarding the diagnostic value of hair characters.
It is however interesting to note that there are greater similarities between
Rousettus and Taphozous than among the other species. It cannot be
said at present if this similarity is of phylogenetic significance.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. A. Gopalakrishna, Professor of Zoology,
Government College of Arts and Science, Aurangabad, for guidance
throughout this work.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

GOVERNMENT COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE, D. R. PATIL
AURANGABAD, P. N. CHAUDHARI
January 6, 1965.

hae

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Ga 543

3. WILD DOGS

Mr. E. R. C. Davidar’s interesting note on village dogs joining wild
dogs in the hunt in the Journal (Vol. 62, No. 1, pp. 146-8) prompts me to
send in this account of an exceptionally close view I had of wild dogs
hunting chital in the Masinagudi area of the Mudumalai Sanctuary.
This area has long been noted for its chital, which are really big and go
about in large herds unlike the chital of the rest of the sanctuary. In
recent years, the deer have multiplied here, the opening up of the country
around Masinagudi and the Moyar project both being favourable to
them, and wild dogs are the main natural check.

Early in October 1963, at about sunset, I noticed a pack of wild dogs
hemming in a herd of chital stags on a rise to the east of the eucalyptus
plantation in Masinagudi—large stag parties, consisting of animals in
hard horn, in velvet, and with polled heads are not uncommon here at this
time of the year. The deer were about half a mile away and, above me,
between me and them, was a deep hollow with sloping sides. The light
was already yellow, but I thought that if I got down to the hollow I might
get a picture of the chase, if the deer fled down the sunlit slope on their side.
However, by the time I reached the hollow they had already crossed the dip
and were galloping towards the plantation, up the slope on my side.
Nowadays I find hillsides literally breath-taking but I ran up, hoping to
get a clear view from the top, and almost collided with a chital stag in
velvet that was bounding down the slope, closely followed by two wild
dogs.

One of these was normally coloured and the other, nearer me and
only some 10 feet away, was coloured rather like a jackal. I had aclear
view of this animal and thought it an exceptionally coloured wild dog ;
it is hard to be sure of details, or even size, when an animal is running low
to ground, as hunting ‘wild dogs (and jackals !) do, but I am quite sure
this was no jackal ; its ears were rounded and its muzzle deep, and the
coloration of its neck and limbs almost chestnut. The deer was distinctly
the gainer by my chance intervention, and got away. A few days later,
meeting Mr. Davidar in Ootacamund, I told him of what I had seen, and
he informed me that there was a report of grizzle-and-black-backed,
jackal-like wild dogs in an earlier volume of the Journal [Vol. 51 (2):
495-7 (?)—Epbs.]. As I wished to scrutinise the wild dogs of this area
closer before committing myself to anything, I did not write a note on
this, but it did strike me as curious that wild dogs, which have such a
wide distribution in Asia and which are, considering all things, so
uniformly coloured, should sport a variety in this area alone. I now
wonder if the animal I saw could have been a village dog, built
remarkably like a wild dog.

Dogs are said to be evolved mainly from jackals and wolves, with the

544 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

wild dog (which looks so dog-like) contributing nothing to their
evolution—this distinction is made on the basis of anatomy, notably of
the dentition, and wild dogs have been assigned a genus apart from dogs,
wolves, and jackals. I do not think any interbreeding is possible.
White markings, even outside the tail-tip, are not unknown in wild dogs.

To continue with my blundering adventure: after this interruption I
persisted with my panting climb and, as I topped the rise, so did the main
body of the hunt, 8 wild dogs chasing a chital stag that had just shed its
antlers—the nearest dog pulled up just in time to avoid colliding with
me and stopped momentarily only a yard away. The stag was spent,
but going towards the plantation in great bounds ; it was prevented from
entering the tree cover by two wild dogs beyond it. As I watched from
only 20 yards away, one of the wild dogs on my side ran in for the kill.
This run, which I have seen once before, is quite different from the
efficient gallop of wild dogs chasing their quarry. It is a mad scurry, with
the body so low to ground that the frantic legs seem to kick out
sideways at a furious speed, to carry the sprinting hunter to the
quarry ; the jaws are open in a snarl, and the quick, rasping gasps of the

wild dog are clearly audible. A line of bushes saved the deer from this

wild dog, but as it dropped back, another instantly took up the run for
the bite. The deer was pulled down about half a furlong away from me,

but I had a reasonably clear view of the killing® and noticed once again

that it is not merely the jaw-power of the wild dog (which is considerable)
but also the forward momentum of the much heavier quarry that is
responsible for large lumps of flesh from the neck or flanks, or an entire
cheek, coming away in the jaws of the hunter at one bite.

Although photography was now out of the question, I approached the
kill furtively, climbing a pile of boulders to get above it. The dogs
were busy tearing at the neck and forequarters, which had already been
stripped to the bone ; the tail had been bitten off at the base and thrown
to one side, and the paunch and much of the intestines removed and
flung a few yards away (I noticed both these things in the only other kill
I have seen, a sambar hind)—all this within 8 minutes !

The dogs were busy tugging furiously at the flesh and leaping back to
detach it, hide and all; 5 of them were feeding, and 3 stood around
panting. In spite of their preoccupation, one of the wild dogs saw me
on the boulders, and drew away with a gruff, brief bark, exactly like the
interrogatory bark of a large domestic dog not sure of an intruder on its
territory. The other dogs looked up, and some of them also indulged in
the interrogatory bark; then they slunk away. I retreated at once,
realizing, belatedly, that it was a very wrong thing I had done, intruding
on feeding wild dogs in a sanctuary. By now the light was failing
rapidly but, when I had gone about a hundred yards away, the wild dogs
reassembled with almost hyena-like calls and returned to their kill, I

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 545

have never before heard either this somewhat fiendish reassembly call or
the interrogatory bark, nor have I heard of them.

Incidentally, perhaps the most notable thing about wild dogs in this
area is that, though there are any number of cattle grazing in the
jungles, they kill only wild animals. Has this peculiar bias of wild dogs,
unshared by most other predators, received the study and consideration
it merits ?

PERUNKULAM House,
EDWARD ELLIOT ROAD, M. KRISHNAN
MYLAPORE, MADRAS,
September 20, 1965.

[A photograph of a wild dog mother with her jackal-hybrid pups born
in captivity is published on page 198 of Vol. 35 of the Journal. This is
referred to in Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton’s well-documented and informative
paper on the Indian Wild Dog on page 691 of Vol. 41 of the Journal in
which he deals with other points raised by Mr. Krishnan. In particular,
Lt.-Col. Burton speaks of the ‘ hyena-like ’ chattering of the wild dog
when startled or alarmed or at the time of disputing a tiger or panther
kill. According to him attacks on domestic stock are unusual; he
refers to reports of some, in addition to which we have before us one
that comes from Chikmagalur District, Mysore State (Journal Vol.
50 : 162-3) .—Eps.]

4. OCCURRENCE OF THE NORTHERN PALM SQUIRREL,
FUNAMBULUS PENNANTI WROUGHTON, IN THE
| ANDAMANS

While working on the collections of mammals from the Andaman
Islands made by the Zoological Survey of India in recent years, I have
come across a specimen of the Northern Palm Squirrel, Funambulus
pennanti Wroughbton, which, according to authoritative literature (Miller
1902 ; Ellerman & Morrison-Scott 1951 ; Ellerman 1961) is not expected
to occur there.

The specimen in question is an adult female taken by the Z.S.I.
party at Brooksabad, Port Blair, on 24 March 1952. Its external mea-
surements (in mm.) are: head and body 142, tail 147, hindfoot 37, ear
18. It isa study skin without skull and bears the Z.S.I. Regd. No. 12132.
In external characters, it does not differ from the population of the
mainland of India,

546 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

This appears to be the first specimen of the species taken in the Anda-
man Islands.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

CALCUTTA, Y. CHATURVEDI
April 29, 1965.

REFERENCES

ELLERMAN, J. R., & MORRISON-SCOTT, of India, Mammalia, Rodentia. Delhi.
T.C.S. (1951): Checklist of Palaearctic MILLER, G. S., Jr. (1902) : The Mam-
and Indian Mammals. British Museum, mals of the Andaman and Nicobar
London. Islands. Proc. U. §. Nat. Mus.24:751-

ELLERMAN, J. R. (1961): The Fauna 795.

[Humayun Abdulali (1965, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61, at p. 495) in
a recent visit to the Andamans saw Palm Squirrels (Funambulus) near
Port Blair, but did not note the species. He conjectures that they are a
recent introduction.—EDs. | |

5. A NOTE ON THE BREEDING HABITS OF THE
WHITEBELLIED RAT, RATTUS NIVIVENTER MENTOSUS
THOMAS

(With a photograph)

Very little is known regarding the ecology and breeding habits of the
Whitebellied Rat, Rattus niviventer mentosus Thomas. The only infor-
mation available regarding its ecology is from the observations of
Shortridge (in Wroughton 1916, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc, 24: 307), and
Roonwal (1949, Trans. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 3 : 67-122).

On 10 December 1964, in the course of our study of the field ecology
of rats and squirrels in the Khasi Hills, we came across a nest on a tree
about 12 ft. high from the ground, on the edge of a scrub jungle at
Barapani (alt. c. 3500 ft.) about 12 miles north of Shillong.

The nest (Photograph) was situated at a fork on the tree. The
materials used in the nest were stems, leaves, and spikes of grass
Imperata sp., lined with bird feathers. It was more or less spherical in
shape with a single central opening about 1 cm. in diameter. The outer
circumference of the nest was about 45-50 cm. and the inner about
20-25 cm.

The nest contained three young rats, more or less equal in size.
Their eyes were unopened, fur smooth and well differentiated, and the
belly white with the tail bicoloured as in the adult R. niviventer mentosus.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 547

The young when disturbed burrowed deeper into the nest.
Their measurements (in mm.) were as follows :

Head and body Ae id deoe Se
Tail 48, 45, 42
Ear 632-6, 20
Hindfoot — 1 Oh I sa

Nest of the Whitebellied Rat, Rattus iiviventer mentosus Thomas in the bifurcation
of a tree, c. 12 ft. from the ground

Roonwal (1949) noted that this rat is semi-arboreal, and prefers
evergreen, and riverine jungle.

The present case as well as the data of an earlier collection by this
Department of gravid females at upper Shillong in November suggest a
breeding season for this rat in early winter in this area. However,
Roonwal (ibid.) collected females with prominent mamme in July-August
but without foetus.

EASTERN REGIONAL STATION, A. S. RAJAGOPAL
ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, A. K. MANDAL
SHILLONG, ASSAM, S. BISWAS

May 14, 1965.

548 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

6. NEST BUILDING BY THE COMMON HOUSE RAT,
RATTUS RATTUS RUFESCENS (GRAY)

A number of rodents belonging to the subfamily Murinae construct
burrows in the soil, for example Rattus rattus rufescens the House Rat,
Bandicota bengalensis the Mole Rat, Meriones the Desert Gerbille, and
Tatera the Indian Gerbille. A few are known to construct regular nests,
e.g. Golunda ellioti the Indian Bush Rat and Vandeleuria oleracea the
Longtailed Tree Mouse. Among the species of Rattus, Roonwal
(personal communication) has observed the building of nest-burrows by
Rattus rattus bullocki, a rat of semi-arboreal habits found in evergreen
scrub and near cultivated fields in eastern India.

Recently, while on a collection trip, we came across an interesting
case of true nest-building, so far not recorded, by the House Rat Rattus
rattus rufescens. The locality was a suburb of Coimbatore in south India
consisting mostly of sugarcane and corn fields. The nests were built in
fences of thick growing cacti, eight to ten feet high, surrounding the
fields. They were situated at a height of five to six feet from the ground
and the intervals between two consecutive nests ranged from six to
twenty feet. The nests were rather crude and were built of freshly cut
leaves and twigs arranged in an interlacing fashion among the branches
of the cacti. The nests were shaped like shallow bowls and resembled
the ordinary bird nest. When a nest was disturbed, the animals behaved
as if well adapted to an arboreal life, moving with great agility among
the cacti along the length of the fence. Many of the nests contained

young ones of these animals.
We thank the authorities of the British Museum of Natural History

for identifying the specimen sent to them.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,
GOVERNMENT SCIENCE COLLEGE, D. R. SHARMA
JABALPUR, M. P., S. SIVARAM

July 19, 1965.

| Blanford’s FAUNA (MAMMALIA) at p. 408 says re. this species: ‘ This
rat is found both on the ground and in trees, where it builds nests among
the branches. In the Laccadive Islands and other places it inhabits
the crown of coconut palms and is said never to descend to the

ground. . .” —EDs.]

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Above : The dead elephant, with a festering wound at the junction of the
front leg and neck (encircled). Below : Debris extracted from the elephant’s
left tusk socket

(Photos: K. Rajagopal)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 549

7. STRANGE FIND IN ELEPHANT’S TUSK SOCKET
(With a plate)

On 8.8.65 in the Bolampatti Reserve Forest of Coimbatore District,
I shot a declared rogue elephant whichhad trampled seven people to death
and had established a reign of terror in the locality.

It had only the right tusk, the left tusk being completely missing. In
the process of removing the right tusk, we also opened the socket of the
left tusk (photograph). Stuck in ihe socket we found three arrowhead-
shaped bamboo pieces of about 3 inches each. From about 9 inches
from the open end of the socket, we extracted a slightly curved piece of
wood, about a foot long and 2 inches in girth (photograph). Further inside
reaching almost to the root of the socket were pieces of wood decayed
into a soft pulp and dark in colour. There was a large quantity of pus
in the socket.

There was no trace of the missing tusk, except for a thin layer of
ivory attached to the skull bones.

Obviously the animal was suffering from acute pain and irritation.
A probable explanation for the presence of the wood debris in the socket
is that to relieve pain the animal must have rubbed its head against tree
and bamboo stumps or trunks. Probably the pain and irritation even-
tually turned him into a rogue.

I also give the story told by the local forest staff and hill tribes.
According to them about two years ago they heard a terrific noise and
found two tuskers engaged in combat. The fight raged for three days.
and nights followed by silence on the fourth day. When the hill tribes
explored the trampled forest and teak plantation they came upon a
dead tusker, obviously killed by the other elephant. They claim that
this rogue elephant was the victor. Interesting as the tale is, apart from
the missing tusk there was no wound or scar to confirm the story.

We found a number of old gunshot wounds in various stages of
healing and one or two in a putrefied condition. In the plate the light-
coloured spot at the junction of the front leg and neck marks a fester-
ing wound.

Among other identification marks was a deformed left rear leg. All
we could find was that this leg was longer than the other. The bones,
however, showed no defect when the legs were removed for mounting.

I would like to hear about other such cases if any.

348, AVANASHI ROAD,

Post Box No. 31, K. RAJAGOPAL
_ COIMBATORE 1,

September 21, 1965.

550 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

8. STRANDINGS OF FINNER WHALE [ BALAENOPTERA
PHYSALUS (LINN.)] NEAR VIRAR (THANA DISTRICT)
AND AT BOMBAY, MAHARASHTRA STATE

On a press report of a stranded whale we visited the village Arnala,
c. 8km. west of Virar (c. 40 km. north of Bombay), on 6 August
1965, and found the whale stranded on the shore about 3 km. north of
the village at some distance from the mouth of the Surya River. Put-
refaction had started and the paper-thin skin was peeling. The colour
of the unpeeled areas was bluish black dorsally, and whitish ventrally
from the chin to near the vent. We took the following measurements :

Total length (tip of snout to notch of flukes) a 14°10 m.
Length of right flipper oy, 50" m,
Snout (tip of snout to hind end ae groove betes

the blow-holes) 2°40 m.

There were 68 ventral srooves or pleats, the middle ones extending
back to near the anal region. The area of the blow-holes was elevated
into a ridge.

The ratio of the fappel length to the body length, c. 1, and the
number of the ventral grooves and their extension to the umbilical region
identify the animal as Balaenoptera physalus (Linn.). From the measure-
ments, itappears to be a subadult.

The local people told us that the whale was first seen spouting in
the creek (about 500 m. wide) between the mainland and Arnala Fort
Island at high tide on 31 July and was followed in boats by the local
fishermen till it stranded. After stranding, the animal showed signs of
breathing for some time and the flippers and flukes moved for a longer
period.

Again, on the 8th October 1965 a dead and decomposing Finner
Whale was stranded among the rocks at Nepean Seaface, Bombay, and
drifted ashore the same night. The body which was lying flat on its back
had partly sunk into the sand. The skin had peeled off at many places
and the hind part of the abdomen was badly crushed. The sides of the
body, where there was skin were bluish black; ventrally whitish except
on the outer side of the left lower jaw, where it was somewhat dark grey.
Skin on the flippers had peeled off.

Measurements :
Total length iz, AP 15°10 m.
Flippers (left and right) ays a 1°65 m.
Number of pleats V2

The pleats at midbody extended far behind the flippers but, as the
lower abdomen was damaged, their termination could not be determined.
Anderson’s (1879) Balaenoptera blythii from the Indian coast is listed
as a synonym of B. physalus by Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 551

However, Blanford (1891) states: ‘. . . there is no evidence as to the
locality whence came the few vertebrae to which Anderson (An. Zool.
Res, : 564) gave the name of B. Dblythii, it is uncertain whether these
bones are of Indian or even of Asiatic origin.’

Besides this, there are reports of two more strandings, one by
S. H. Prater (1914), and the other by V. K. Chari (1950). Both were
identified as B. indica(= B. musculus) but seem nearer to B. physalus (see
C. A. Gibson-Hill 1950 and J.C. Daniel 1963). In the absence of
information as to the number and the extent of the pleats, their identity
cannot be satisfactorily established.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

HORNBILL HOUSE,
BoMBAY 1-BR,
December 27, 1965.

B. ROBERT GRUBH
M. J. PEREIRA

REFERENCES

BLANFoRD, W. T. (1891) : The Fauna
of British India. Mammals: 567.

CuHari, V. K. (1951): The Great
Indian Rorqual or Fin Whale Balaenop-
tera indica Blyth off Umargam. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 50 (1): 161.

DANIEL, J.C. (1963): Stranding of a
Blue Whale Balaenoptera musculus (Linn.)
near Surat, Gujarat, with notes on ear-

T.C. 8. (1951) : Checklist of Palaearctic
and Indian Mammals. British Museum,
London.

GIBSON-HILL, C. A. (1950) : A note on
the Rorquals Balaenoptera spp. J. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc. 49 (1): 14.

PRATER, S. H. (1914) : Note on a
stranded Great Indian Fin Whale

(Balaenoptera indica) at Ratnagiri. ibid.

lier literature. ibid. 60 (1): 252. Z3 (3) 3.576

ELLERMAN, J. R., & MORRISON-SCOTT,

9. THE GREAT CRESTED GREBE [PODICEPS CRISTATUS
(LINNAEUS)] IN KUTCH

(With two text-figures)

Since the days of F. Stoliczka and A. O. Hume in the 19th century
some of the birds listed by them from Kutch have not been seen or
recorded by any one. The credit for the discovery of one such bird
goes to His Highness the Maharao Saheb of Kutch, my brother, who
informed me on 23 May that he had seen six birds on the Rudramata
Dam (9 miles from Bhuj) which he thought he had never seen in Kutch.
Keen sportsman and experienced observer that he is, his apt and exact
description of the plumage of the birds, their behaviour, and so on hel-
ped me to identify them at once as Great Crested Grebes [Podiceps
cristatus (Linnaeus)]. When I went to Rudramata Dam that evening
I failed to see them. However, on May 27 I went again with my
brother and had the luck to see the six birds, and so any doubt I had in

552. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

my mind about their identity was dispelled. I failed to collect a speci-
men for the Society, as the grebes kept on swimming and diving out of
range of my gun.

Summer

Winter

Dharmakumarsinhji (BIRDS OF SAURASHTRA, p. 4) says that Bulkley
records a pair having bred at Kharaghoda in August, but it is not men-
tioned in which year the pair was observed breeding. Although this is
by no means an unusual occurrence in Kutch as this bird is said to
visit Sind (West Pakistan) as well, it can very well be put among the
rare visitors. Stuart Baker (FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA 6: 479) also
mentioned a breeding record in Karachi. So I shall not be surprised if
the Great Crested Grebe breeds in Kutch too once in a while.

JUBILEE GROUND,
BHUJ, KUTCH, M. K. HIMMATSINHSI

June 12, 1965. ;

Le ee eT ee

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 553

[The Great Crested Grebe is an irregular but not unusual winter visitor
to India, reaching south as far as Kathiawar in the west and Puri
(Orissa) in the east. It breeds in large numbers in the lakes of Ladakh
and Tibet, rarely in the Vale of Kashmir, and sporadically in the plains,
having been recorded from Karachi, Oudh, and the Doab. Bulkley’s
record from Kharaghoda relates to the year 1891 (J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 6: 501).

In the hope that our readers may be encouraged to keep a look-out
for the bird we give an illustration and a short description: An
aquatic bird, distinguishable from the duck by its pointed bill, thin neck,
lobed feet, and tiny tail. Size of adult (from tip of bill to tip of tail)
19 inches. Dark crown and short or incipient ear-tufts. White stripe
over eye. Grey-brown upper parts. Satiny white lower parts. In
summer, expansible chestnut and black frill on side of head. Juveniles
and nestlings, striped black and white.—Epbs, ].

10. NOTES ON INDIAN BIRDS 6—THE OCCURRENCE OF
THE PYGMY CORMORANT [HALIETOR (PHALACRO-
CORAX) PYGMEUS (PALLAS)] IN BALUCHISTAN. AN
ADDITION TO THE AVIFAUNA OF PAKISTAN

While going over the ornithological collections of the Bombay
Natural History Society, a report on which is under preparation, we
found a specimen of the Pygmy. Cormorant [Halietor (Phalacrocorax)
pygmeus (Pallas)] bearing register No. 15009 and the following

data :
3200 Gujar, Mashkai [?] 165 m. SSW of Kalat

fon] 3.9.17. Collected by Capt. J.E.B.H.[otson].

This bird along with two others from Amara, Persian Gulf, and Enzil,
Gilan, N. Persia, though marked Phalacrocorax pygmeus on the labels
were listed under Phalacrocorax niger, an error which one of us (H.A.)
had noticed some years ago and marked in the register. He however
overlooked the fact that one of them was from Baluchistan and consti-
tuted an addition to the avifauna of Pakistan. The thicker bill, the
brown head, and the curious filoplumes scattered over the neck and
lower parts are very distinctive.

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET,
BOMBAY 3-BR, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

HORNBILL HOUSE, . M. J. PEREIRA
BOMBAY 1-BR,

September 27, 1965.

554. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

11. NOTES ON INDIAN BIRDS 7—ON THE SIZE
OF THE WHITE EGRETS IN INDIA (EGRETTA ALBA,
INTERMEDIA, AND GARZETTA)

When working out my collection from the Andaman Islands
(J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61: 502), I identified a female egret from
North Button Island, Middle Andamans, as Egretta intermedia inter-
media (Wagler). J have now had occasion to examine and compare all
available specimens of the 3 species of Egretta, i.e. alba, intermedia,
and garzetta, and though the number both in breeding and non-breeding
plumage is limited the conclusions arrived at after ier effort appear
to be worth recording.

Seven skins registered as intermedia, together with a specimen with
a yellow bill transferred from garzetta by me, had wings measuring from
296-361 mm. (FAUNA 304-333, once 354) and these could be divided by
size into two separate groups :

Wing Bill Tarsus

& (from feathers)
Larger : a2 337-361 96-100 126-134
E. alba modesta av. 346 av. 98 av. 131
Smaller : 2G 22s LO? 296-305 70-77 99-110
E. intermedia av. 301 av. 73 av. 105°4

The smaller birds (including one with the dorsal plumes extending
far beyond the tail) could be separated from garzetta by their larger
wings (251-290 av. 275 in garzetta) and shorter bills (85-90 av. 86 in
garzetta), but the larger birds included one bearing a pencil note by
Dr. Salim Ali ‘ Egretta intermedia det. C. B. Ticehurst’ but no further
remarks. I took it that this meant agreement with the identification
and had been noted as a guide to future workers. After I had been
forced to the conciusion that the three larger birds could only be Egretta
alba modesta (J. E. Gray) in non-breeding plumage, I noticed that
Salim Ali had already (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52: 383) decided
that Ticehurst had made a mistake regarding this specimen.

Accepting the three larger birds as E. alba modesta, the males of this
species average appreciably larger than the females? -

Wing Bill Tarsus
(from feathers)
4gg* 347-382 av. 370 110-115 av. 113 147-165 av. 156
4 22 337-361 avy. 348 96-100 av. 98 126-147 av. 135

* This includes an unsexed specimen, which is the largest.

A single unsexed specimen from Sind is much larger—Wing 447, Bill
i126, Tarsus 215, and is of the nominate form.
No all-white specimen of Egretta gularis schistacea is available.

oa After completing this note I see that Tom Iredale (1956) in BIRDS OF NEW GUINEA
1: 109 states that this species ‘increases in size with age and an old male is much
larger than a young, fully grown, bird’.—H.A.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 555

This examination appears to establish that :

(1) intermedia are much smaller than indicated in the FAUNA and
that there should be no difficulty in separating them from /’. a. modesta,
by size alone; |

(2) the bird collected by me in the Andamans is really E. a.
modesta and serves to establish the occurrence of this species in that
area.

Regarding the first conclusion, I would repeat that I realize the
paucity of material on which it is based, but the published measure-
ments have caused so much difficulty and confusion that I think it
worth while accepting an apparently obvious alternative. I hope that
somebody with access to more material will check upon my
findings.

I am grateful to M. J. Pereira of the Bombay Natural History
Society for assistance in handling and measuring the specimens,

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET,

BOMBAY 3-BR, HUMAYUN ABDULALI
October 8, 1965.

12. OCCURRENCE OF THE MARBLED TEAL,
ANAS ANGUSTIROSTRIS MENETRIES, IN MAHARASHTRA

Specimen No. 15491 in the collection of the Bombay Natural
History Society shot by Major C. W. Ridley at Kapurwaddi Tank,
Ahmednagar, Maharashtra, on 26th January 1947, was correctly registered
as Anas angustirostris Ménetriés. Earlier, one was shot at Ravengaon
Lake, 54 miles south-east of Poona (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 38: 196),
but both are omitted from Ripley’s SYNOPSIS in which the southern-
most records are said to be from northern Gujarat.

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET,

BOMBAY 3-BR, HUMAYUN ABDULALI
BomMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,
HORNBILL HOUSE, P. B. SHEKAR

BOMBAY 1-BR,
December 3, 1965.

13. SIMULTANEOUS MOULT OF REMIGES IN ANHINGIDAE

In his note ‘On an ornithological trip to the Gulf of Kutch’ at

p. 656 of Volume 59 of the Journal, Mr. Humayun Abdulali described a

darter (Anhinga melanogaster) collected on 28 July 1962 in moult with its

wing quills hardly an inch and a half long and remarked that, though
12

§56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

this flightless condition has been noted in several species of duck
wintering in India, he had not seen it mentioned for any of the
Phalacrocoracidae. It may therefore be of interest to note that, in
article ‘Moult’ at p. 488 of Thomson, A. L. (ed.): A NEW DICTIONARY
OF BIRDS, Dr. J. M. Harrison after referring to simultaneous moult of
remiges in certain species of ducks (Anatidae) adds that it is ‘also found
in flamingos (Phoenicopteridae), grebes (Podicipitidae), divers (Gavii-
dae), and darters (Anhingidae),

BOMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY, |
HORNBILL HOUSE, EDITORS
BOMBAY 1-BrR, ae
September 6, 1965.

14. OCCURRENCE OF THE BLACKCRESTED BAZA
[AVICEDA LEUPHOTES (DUMONT)] IN MADHYA PRADESH

Going through the bird collection of the Bombay Natural History
Society we found the fragments of a Blackcrested Baza [Aviceda
leuphotes (Dumont)] along with a label marked: ‘GIDUM (C.P.),
Buster State 24.4.36 H. V. Blackburn’,

The specimen probably because of its tattered condition was not
registered and the label presumably fell apart. We have gone through
the whole register and cannot find any other bird received from Mr.
Blackburn, nor any specimen in the same shelf to which the label could
refer. The label is also marked in pencil ‘ W(ing) 236’ which measure-
ment in millimetres is within the range of this species.

Ripley recognizes two forms from Indian limits, the nominate form
from Pondicherry, and syama (Hodgson) from Nepal. We have been |
unable to see any differences between the single southern specimen
available from Coonoor and two from Darjeeling which should
represent the two races.

The species, though believed to migrate into Ceylon and Burma,
does not appear to have been recorded from the Central Provinces (now
Madhya Pradesh).

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET,
BOMBAY 3-BR, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

BoMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

HORNBILL HOUSE, ~V. C. AMBEDKAR
BOMBAY 1-BR,

December 21, 1965.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 557

15. .WINTER FOOD OF THE PAINTED PARTRIDGE
[FRANCOLINUS PICTUS (JARDINE & SELBY)]
IN RAJASTHAN

With reference to the observations of Mr. S. C. Sharma about the
feeding habits in winter of the Painted Partridge [Francolinus pictus
(Satdine & Selby)] in Rajasthan on pages 686-688 of the Journal for
December 1964, Vol. 61 (3), I wish to point out the following :

(a) I have shot hundreds of Painted Partridges in Rajasthan,
particularly in the Kekeri-Sarwar regions of Ajmer District and round
about Mhow in Central India. When I was younger I particularly
enjoyed cleaning the birds also, and when doing so, on no occasion,
did I find any lady-bird beetle and only very rarely big black ants
in their crops. On the other hand these have been found to contain, in
a very large number of cases, termites, small red ants, moth larvae,
and other small insects; also grains like barley, bajra, grass seeds, and
a small berry locally aallee dansra.

. (6) It therefore follows, though I ete subject to correction, that
the feeding habits of the Painted Partridge in winter are not uniform
_but depend on the type of food available. I would go so far as to say
that its feeding habits are closer to its cousin the Grey Partridge and,
like the Grey Partridge, it comes on. the roadside and pecks cattle dung,
looking for undigested grain.

New DELHI, Major: A. DAVID
August 26, 1965.

16. THE WHITECHEEKED DRONGO [DICRURUS
- LEUCOPHAEUS SALANGENSIS REICHENOW]: AN
| ADDITION TO THE INDIAN. AVIFAUNA
While working on a collection of ade 1 fpr Nagaland, I came
across a specimen of the Whitecheeked Drongo [Dicrurus leucophaeus
saiangensis -Reichenow], which according to standard works (Baker
1924; Vaurie 1949, 1959) does not occur anywhere within the Indian
limits.
The specimen is an adult male collected by the Naga Hill Survey
Party of the Zoological Survey of India at Chizami (Khezhabama), about
28 km. ESE. of Kohima, Nagaland, on 20 January 1936, Its measure-

558 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

ments (in mm.) are: wing 135, bill 26+. The outer tail feathers are
missing. The specimen is in the collection of the Zoological Survey of
India bearing Reg. No. 29558.

This appears to be the first specimen of the subspecies known from
India.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
CALCUTTA, P. K. DAS

May 1, 1905.

REFERENCES

Baker, E. C. S. (1924): Fauna of bird family Dicruridae. Bull. Amer.
British India. Birds. ed. 2. 2 : 367. Mus. nat. Hist. 93: 254-256

London. ————. (1959): The birds of the
VauRIE, C. (1949): A-revisionof the Palaearctic fauna (Passeriformes): 122-
123. London.

[The author’s identification has been confirmed by Dr. Biswamoy
Biswas, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. Vaurie (1949) gives the
range thus: ‘ Southeastern China inland, south from the Yangtze, along
which it intergrades with /ewcogenis, and on the coast south from the
Fukien-Kwangtung boundary. Migrates to Hainan, and through Indo-
china and eastern and southern Siam to the Malay Peninsula as far south
as Malacca.’ He gives for #: wing 139-145 (143), 22: 137-145
(141°50) mm. For an ‘adult male’ the specimen appears to be rather
small.—EDs. |

17. PIED WHEATEAR, OENANTHE PICATA (BLYTH)
AT KANYAKUMARI, SOUTH INDIA

In October and November 1964 I spent three weeks at Kanyakumari
staying ina house overlooking the sea about three quarters of a mile
west of the actual cape. From here my daily walk took me along the
sandy boulder-strewn cliff to the point where it ends about half a mile
further west still.

On this stretch of coast, on 21st October, I saw a bird which I was
not able to identify. It flew low and fast above the ground along the
edge of the cliff immediately above the shore, perching. upright on
boulders or flat rock surfaces when it alighted.

In the subsequent two weeks I saw the bird repeatedly and was able
to observe it closely. Its build and behaviour suggested a wheatear, but
I could find no references at all to wheatears in any of the books on

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 559

south Indian birds which I had with me. I did not even know if
wheatears were found in north India.

On return home I consulted Whistler (POPULAR HANDBOOK OF INDIAN
BIRDS). From this it appeared that the bird seen at Kanyakumari
resembled a female Pied Wheatear, Oenanthe picata (Blyth). The tail
had been the distinctive feature of the bird and fitted Whistler’s
description : ‘ white except for a broad black band across the end, wide-
ning on the central pair to nearly half of the feathers.’ Whistler says
that in the case of the female the black is replaced by brown. In the
case of the bird at Kanyakumari it seemed blackish brown.

As Whistler made no reference to any appearances of this bird in
south India, I was on the point of writing to ask your Society if such
visits south had been recorded before. Before writing I again consulted
Henry (BIRDS OF CEYLON) in which I had previously been unable to find
any reference to wheatears. This time I discovered, on p. 25, a note in
which he tells of seeing a wheatear in a Colombo garden, on 16
November 1943, in a very exhausted state. He presumed that it was a
bird recently arrived from India. He later compared his notes and
_ Sketches made at the time with specimens in the Natural History
Museum, London, and concluded that this bird was a female Pied
Wheatear, Oenanthe leucomela.

I was very pleased that this record from Ceylon brought my very
tentative conclusion regarding the bird at Kanyakumari into the realm
of possibility. I wonder if there are any records of it having been seen
previously in south India ?

DOHNAVUR,
TIRUNELVELI District, S. INDIA, MARGARET E. WILKINSON
March 2, 1965.

REFERENCES

Henry, G. M. (1955) : Birdsof Ceylon. book of Indian Birds.’ Gurney and
Oxford University Press. Jackson, London.
WHISTLER, H. (1935) : Popular Hand-

18. NOTES ON INDIAN BIRDS 8—OCCURRENCE
OF THE BLACKHEADED MUNIA [LONCHURA
M. MALACCA (LINN.)] NEAR BOMBAY

In the morning of 4 August 1965, I took P. V. George, Junior
Research Assistant, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, to a
small patch of low mangrove-cum-sea-holly (Acanthus ilicifolius) between
a branch of the Thana Creek and the Agra Road, on the far side of the
bridge at Thana, Maharashtra, to see if he could find nests of the Indian

560 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

Great Reed Warbler (Acrocephalus wie which. I had often seen
and heard there. |

While George laboured ausuccessfillys in the mud and I sat by. the
roadside, I saw a pair of Blackheaded Munias [Lonchura m. malacca
(Linn.)] fly across the road and settle in the mangrove—the black patch
on the white underparts identified them subspecifically. We were there
foc about an hour and during this time, though no nest was found, the
pair returned to the same patch on several occasions and another party
of four was also seen.

This distinctive munia is well known in Ceylon and south- os
India, south of Belgaum. ‘There are a few records from further north
in peninsular India—Pachmari, Hoshangabad District, Bates; Pakhal
Lake, Warangal District, Salim Ali; Kolair Lake, Godavari District,
Col. Sparrow ; Bhandara, Madhya Pradesh, Blewitt ; Ratnagiri, Vidal—
which all refer to birds seen only once. Blewitt refers to the other race
atricapilla (Vieillot) nesting half-a-mile away.

No earlier records from near Bombay appear to have been published,
though Br. A. Navarro, s.J., took eggs at Khandala on 28 October 1938,

and I have an undated note of a recollection of a party seen at Lake |

Beale, Nasik District, in the course of a snipe/duck shoot. On 26
January 1954, I shot one in Thana District (B.N.H.S. Sp. No..19733) ;
later I discovered that its wing feathers were trimmed, so that it was
undoubtedly an escaped or released bird. Layard’s record of atricapilla
from Galle, Ceylon, and Osmaston’s of malacca from the Andamans
have both been similarly accounted for and I cannot help expressing
the feeling that these remarks probably apply to the records north of
about the 18th latitude, all of which indicate a discontinuous and local
distribution. ,

Incidentally, Vidal ee cit.) refers to 2 specimens of Amadina
rubronigra Hodgs. obtained by Dr. Armstrong in the Ratnagiri District.
One of these is available in the Society’s collection and the label is
marked ‘ atricapilla-malacca hybrid’. This. has the primaries in one
wing missing, presumably indicating a captive specimen.

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET,
BOMBAY 3-BR, HUMAYUN ABDULALI
August 10, 1965. | ibe Miter fy

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 561

19. TWO WAYS TO HELP. NESTING BIRDS
IN YOUR GARDEN

(With a sketch)

There must be many bird-lovers who have seen their garden honoured
by the nest of some small bird only to suffer the acute distress of
finding the eggs or nestlings butchered by a crow or other predator.
And if the nestlings somehow survived, their human friends must
often have watched the parents’ frantic attempts to satisfy from three to
five ravenous appetites and vainly oneed to find some way in which they
could help.

Nest of Ashy Wren Warbler (Prinia socialis Sykes) in protecting basket
(Diagrammatic)

Our own experience with a family of Ashy Wren-Warblers, Prinia
socialis Sykes, who nested in our tiny fenced garden, suggests that heip
can be given, both in safeguarding the nest and in feeding the nestlings.

Our warblers built the usual globular, side-opening type of nest in our
zinnia bed. A zinnia’s main stem passed right through the nest, over

562 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

which one pair of leaves was folded down and stitched to form a roof,
So unobtrusive was the construction work that we never noticed it till
12 September, by which time it was largely completed. The first egg
was laid on 21 September, and on the 27th we observed four eggs in the |
nest. During incubation, the little hen became fully used to our presence
and tolerated even a very close approach.

On 6 October the parents were observed bringing green caterpillars,
the eggs having all hatched. Nine days later, we were lucky enough to
visit the garden just in time to save the fledglings from a Crow-Pheasant,
which had evidently discovered the nest and was so persistent that it
returned within a few minutes of having been driven off. We thus feit
ourselves forced by necessity to the invention of some sort of prOeine
device. And this is what we did.

We took an inch-thick bamboo and fitted a cross-piece at sucha
height that, when the bamboo was set firmly in the ground beside the
zinnia plant, the cross-piece would be some 3 to 4 inches below the nest.
This was duly fixed, as close as possible to the stem running through
the nest. During the whole process, of course, we were frequently
‘driven off’ by the food-bringing parents.

Next we took a basket — the ordinary common type supplied by
stores and fruit-sellers — and in its bottom we cut a hole slightly larger
than the nest. The basket was then slipped over the zinnia stem
and nest, until it rested on the cross-piece. The bottom of the basket
was then re-floored with any handy material, and the whole basket was
attached by strings to two or three neighbouring stems, in order to keep
it from tiltmg. We had of course already cut a small hole in the side of
the basket, turning the basket:so that this hole came directly opposite
the nest opening.

Now we left the basket in position with the top open, so that the
birds could readily see that their nest was still there. The hen accepted .
the ‘improvement’ with only a moment’s hesitation, but the cock was
rather suspicious. However, both birds visited the nest either from the
top or throug! the specially cut hole in the side of the basket. On seeing
this, we closed the top of the basket with a piece of thick cloth. Hence-
forth, the hen visited the nest through the little hole as readily as though
the basket had always been there ; but the cock began to give up his
visits altogether. He had always shown himself to be a hysterical and
ultra-cautious creature, in marked contrast with his mate. In fact, from
now on we never saw him again; so itis perfectly possible that he met
with an ‘accident’ in this wicked world of crows, cats, and small
boys.

This protective arrangement, which I have illustrated in the accom-
panying diagram, did more than preserve the nest from crows and crow
pheasants ; it also safeguarded the fledglings for those first two critical

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 563

days after they spilled out of the bulging nest. Instead of squatting ex-
posed on stalk or ground beneath, they could jump and flutter about the
inside of the basket growing ever stronger and more capabie in perfect
safety. By the time they refused to stay inside the basket (18 October)
they were a couple of days older, and by then much better able to take
care of themselves. .

The withdrawal of the cock bird threw a tremendous strain on the
gallant little hen. The failure of the monsoon in Poona had also
seriously diminished the supply of insect food. My daughter and I
therefore felt impelled to try to supplement the mother’s efforts by
catching cockroaches inside our flat and flies and grasshoppers outside.

Whatever we caught we laid on a freshly-cut canna leaf, which we
placed in such a position that the hen would be bound to notice it as
she reached the nest with her own catch. At first we placed the leaf
close to the basket ; after the chicks scattered over the garden, we used
to place it on the path close to wherever they were roosting.

To our delight, the little hen immediately took advantage of our
proffered help. She quickly learned to visit and inspect the leaf as soon
as she had disposed of her own catch. After a while, she even learned
to recognize our special call, by which we sought to inform her that we
had brought food for her. She would watch us while we placed our
insects (numbed by pinching, but not squashed flat) on the leaf, and
pounce down upon them the moment we slightly withdrew.

One cannot of course say whether our little bird was an abnormally
intelligent and co-operative specimen. But I have thought it worth
while to describe the ways in which she allowed us to help her, in order
that other bird-lovers may do likewise —or perhaps still better — in
appropriate circumstances.

DEV KUNI,

PRABHAT ROAD, THOMAS GAY
POONA 4,

October 26, 1965.

564
--Ring No. - | Date and place of
and species | ringing

Date and place of
recovery —

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

20. RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS

Remarks

2.4.1965. Beliaghata,
North Salt Lake,
Calcutta (c. 22°35
‘N., 88°21 E.), India

AB-11018
Tringa . glare-
ola

3.12.1964. Manjhaul
C-1701 .(6.°25:23 .N., 86:30
Anas crecca &| E.), Monghyr Dist.,

| Bihar, India

C-1765 5.12.1964. do.

Anas crecca &

C-1778 do.

| 5.12.1964.
Anas crecca 2

C-1919

Anas crecca & | 3.1.1965. do.

F-3537 15.2.1964. do.

Anas crecca Q

F-3551 16.2.1964.

do.
Anas crecca 8 | f

+, 25.5.1965. Alma-
znyi near Mirnyi;
Yakutian,
Mirnyi (c. 62°32 N.,
113°50 E.)

ae. 22.9 19652 > At
Sergo (50 km. NE.
of Bodaibo), Irkutsk
region “(c. 38°15-'N:;
114°50 E.)

+, 28.8.1965. In
Obskoe near
Kamen’-na-Obi,
Altai territory,
USSR (c. 53°38 N.,
81°40 E.)

+, 30.5.1965. At
‘ Kusalan-Kel’ ’
Lake near Dyullyu-
kyu, Yakutian,
ASSR (c. 63°43 N.,
120°30 E.)

+, 22.8.1965. Near
Chistoozernoe
(‘ Ozero Kusche-
vatoe’), Novosibirsk
region, USSR (c.
44°42 N.,-76°35 E.)

+,26.9.1965. At

‘ Gusinoe’-Lake, 2
km. south of Gusi-
noe Ozero, Bur-
yatiaj, USSR (c.;
51°05 N., 106718 E.) |
|

)

+, in spring 1965, c.'
May. Near Erzin:

(The Tuvin ASSR)
(ce. 50°15 Nes 10
E.)

ASSR, |

Reported by Bird-—
Ringing -Bureau,~
USSR =)

do.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 565

GREAT SEL ARS SLATS aa Ed OT AD i | ALS AME ITT As IIE 2 PANS SE TI TD

Ring No. Date and place of Date aie ‘ities of

® ° . k
and species ringing recovery Remarks

US Fish & | 5.3.1961. Gonzales| x (died in captivity), | Captured by Mr.

Wildlife Videla Base, Antarc-; 7.8.1964. -Udyavara| Pappu Marakala
Service ; tic Peninsula. (c.} (South Kanara),| of Udyavara and
_ 647-27146 64°49 S., 62°51 W.,| Udipi (c. 13°23 N.,| brought to Mr..
Catharacta skua| a Chilean Inter-| 74°45 E.), Mysore| M. Madhva Raj,
maccormicki national Geophysi-| State M.L.A., Malpe,
Dark-phase cal Year Station in South Kanara
bird the Antarctic.
Ringedby the United
States Antarctic

Research Program

(U.S.A. R. P.) Bird
_ Banding Project,

Antarctica

PREITY EY | RES BATTEN A

Note. -+ =shotor killed by man.
x = found dead, or ill/exhausted, ad eventually died.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

HornBiLL House, | ~< ° “EDITORS
BOMBAY 1-BR, | | |

January 28, 1966.

21. PLANTS EATEN BY UROMASTIX MICROLEPIS BLANFORD
AND OTHER NOTES ON THIS LIZARD IN EASTERN ARABIA.

I was very interested in what Mr. Mandaville has written in your
publication (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. 62, No. 1) for April 1965.

My experience in Kuwait with young spinytailed lizards, which used:
to be given to us for the children to play with, was that they would eat:
green alfalfa, which we gave them daily in their box.

As Mr. Mandaville observed, the full stows Beans in captivity would
eat nothing.

That they eat locusts also is possible. I quote from THE ARAB OF THE

DESERT, by H. R. P. Dickson:

‘In 1932 .. . I remember once, when coming home with my wife
from the Batin iy car, meeting a swarm of locusts flying very low across
the plain west of Jahra. It was near sunset, and we saw several full
sized dhubs and wurral on the side of the track chasing the flying locusts.
and jumping in the air to catch them. We were so much interested at
the sight that we stopped our car and watched for some five-minutes,

566 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

There were eight large monitors—wurral. In their excitement they
appeared oblivious of our presence.’

I have also eaten a piece of the lizard’s tail roasted and found it
good.

SEEF,
Kuwalt, (Mrs,) V. P. DICKSON, C.B.E£.
October 23, 1965.

22. LAND MONITOR PREYING ON BATS

On 26 August 1965 at about 9 a.m. I saw one young of the large
land monitor (Varanus sp.) going up a jak fruit tree. Three small bats
were hanging from the first limb of the tree, about 3 metres from the
ground. The monitor, went towards the bats very slowly and cautious-
ly, repeatedly stopping and watching them. When it was hardly 30 cm.
from the bats, it made a quick rush and caught the nearest one head
first and camé down the tree with the bat still fluttering in its mouth.
The other two flew off.

After coming down the monitor swallowed the bat with three or four
jerky movements. The whole operation from catching to swallowing
took hardly a minute.

So far as I know bats have very few natural enemies—the smell of bats
is a good defence. I have seen these monitors going up trees quite often,
and thought they were after the young and eggs of birds. If a 75 cm.
monitor could do this, it is possible that full-grown monitors prey on
bigger bats.

RANGE FOREST OFFICE, |

MaAzBAT, DARRANG, K. K. GUPTA
ASSAM,

September 2, 1965.

[Most species of bats have distinctive smells but there is no reason
to believe that this is protective and prevents their being eaten by the
normally carnivorous predators, for instance the Hobby (Falco subbuteo
Linn.), which is more crepuscular than other hawks, is well known to
take bats when they appear at dusk. Large populations of bats in the
famous Limestone Caves in Malaya are preyed on by a dark-coloured
hawk Machaerhamphus alcinus Westerman which appears to feed
entirely on bats and swifts. A snake Elaphe taeniura ridleyi(Butler) which
inhabits these caves also specializes in a diet of bats (A. L. Butler 1899,
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12 : 424-6).—EDs. ]

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 567

23. GAMBUSIA AND MOSQUITO CONTROL
(With a text-figure)

Gambusia is the famous ‘ Top minnow’ that has been very widely
used in anti-malarial measures in different parts of the world. It was
imported into India about half a century ago from Italy and Thailand
and is flourishing today at different parts of the country (Hora &
Mukerji 1953).

Gambusia affinis holbrookii (Girard)

Myers (1965) in a recent article entitled ‘Gambusia, the fish
destroyer ’ has shown that Gambusia is a very dangerous fish to introduce
into a place where it does not occur naturally, and is little or no better
as a mosquito destroyer than other less dangerous species. Observations
made at San Jose, California, during the last seven years (Myers 1965)
have proved that Gambusia in a new habitat is destructive, not only to
fishes of similar size but even to much larger fishes, whereas in its natural
habitat it is kept in check by its natural enemies, and smaller fish have
evolved a defence against it. As to the damage Gambusia has already
caused Myers reports thus :

‘In certain of our southwestern streams, the native Poeciliopsis is
gone ; Gambusia was introduced. In the canals of Bangkok, Thailand,
the common native Aplocheilus panchax is now rare and the unique little
Phenacostethus (known only from there) has disappeared ; Gambusia is
common. In the creeks around Laguna de Bay, in the Philippines,
Gulaphallus is gone and Gambusia reigns. In the lower Nile, the native
Micropanchax schoelleri cannot be found, but Gambusia is common.’

568 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

Even though we have no record of the damage caused to our fish
fauna by the introduction into India of Gambusia the Public Health
authorities would do well to be cautious and abandon further propaga-
tion of Gambusia affinis affinis (Baird & Girard) and G. a. holbrookii
(Girard) for malaria control in India. . | |

It may be noted that Poeciliidae, to which Gambusia belong, are
closely related to the Cyprinodontidae of which five species, namely
Aplocheilus panchax (Ham.), A. lineatus (C. & V.), A. blocki (Arnold),
Oryzias melastigma (McClelland), and Asphanius dispar (Riippell), are
found in India, and detailed investigations conducted by Hora and Nair,
Gravely, Job, John, etc. (see Hora & Mukerji 1953) have already shown
that these fishes are as good as larvicidal fishes as any of the exotic
species. They are perennial breeders, and A. /ineatus is remarkable in
its occurrence in all types of water such as hill-streams and reservoirs at
high altitudes, and in rivers, tanks, and wells of the plains, low-lying
paddy fields, swamps, estuaries, and backwaters (Chacko 1949). All
these species are known to be easy to breed in the aquarium, and it is
worth while trying commercial breeding of them in aquaria to make them
available at a nominal cost for anti-malarial work.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
34, CHITTARANJAN AVENUE,
CALCUTTA-12

April 20, 1965.

A. G. K. MENON

REFERENCES

CHAcKo, P.I. (1949): Some-obser-—

vations on Aplocheilus lineatus.(Cuv. &
Val.) in Madras Province. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 48 (3) : 604-605.

Hora, 8S. L., & MUKERII, D.D. (1953) :
‘Table for the identification of Indian
fresh-water fishes, with description of

certain families and observations on the
relative utility of the probable larvivorous
fishes of India. Malaria Bureau No. 4,
ed. 3. Delhi.

Myers, G. S. (1965) : Gambusia, the
fish destroyer. Tropical Fish Hobbyist :
31-32, 53-54. New Jersey, U.S.A.

24. SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR IN LYCOSA CHAPERI
SIMON (ARACHNIDA : ARANEIDA)

(With four text-figures)

a“

~ SYNOPSIS

Observations have been made on the sexual behaviour of Lycosa
chaperi Simon. The act of copulation in this spider is preceded by two
distinct behavioural phases, viz. precourtship and courtship. During
the precourtship phase the male spider charges its intromittent (palpal)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 569

organ with semen through a process called sperm induction. This
unique process involves transferring the spermatozoa from the internal
gonadial system to the palpal organ borne by the pedipalp. Sperm in-
duction is followed by a 24-hour rest period. It is suggested that the
spermatozoa undergo certain physiological changes during this period.

The courtship period in L. chaperi is of comparatively short dura-
tion, probably because the male and the female individuals are of similar
stature. In a majority of spiders the males are much smaller than the
females and thus courtship is a lengthy process. During copulation the
male mounts the female from the opposite direction while she lies in a
state of catalepsis. The male uses palpal organs alternately for insertion
into the female genital opening. The duration of the sexual act may
vary from two to forty-five minutes.

INTRODUCTION

Male spiders lack a primary intromittent organ and have developed
instead at the apex of each pedipalp a secondary intromittent apparatus
called the palpal organ. Prior to copulation the male spider transfers
the spermatic fluid from seminal vesicles in its abdomen to the palpal
organs by a process known as sperm induction. The female genital
organs, located ventrally near the base of the abdomen, are specialized
-to receive and store the spermatozoa, _

This paper records observations on sexual behaviour in Lycosa
chaperi, which comprises four distinct phases ; precourtship, courtship,
precopulation, and copulation. = |

The observations were made in the zoological laboratories of the
Panjab University, Chandigarh. The authors are grateful to Prof.

G. P. Sharma, Head of the Department, for providing the necessary
facilities.

OBSERVATIONS

Precourtship. Precourtship comprises sperm induction in the male,
with no corresponding process in the female. Prior to this the males
seem incapable of mating and it has been observed that L. chaperi males
with empty palpal organs make no effort to copulate. This has also
been observed by Petrunkevitch (1911) in a Theraphosid spider
Dugesiella hentzi. Kaston (1948) mentions that. ‘ fullness in the testes ’
and ‘emptiness in the palpal organs’ are the probable factors that sti-
mulate sperm induction. :

In L. chaperi sperm induction was observed in a laboratory cage that
consisted of a lantern chimney placed on a petri-dish containing dung-
pieces. The males, upon reaching sexual maturity show distinct signs

-570 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

of restlessness and run around within the chimney. Finally, a sheet of
web is constructed with one side attached to the wall of the chimney and
the other to the bottom. The male then vibrates its abdomen rapidly
sideways rubbing it against the web and finally depositing a spermato-
phore on the sheet web. The abdominal action seems to be correlated
with concentration of heavy setae around the genital orifice and presu-
mably produces a tactile stimulation, which causes ejaculation of the
seminal fluid. After ejaculation, the male moves slightly backward
bringing its palpi below the sheet and applies the palpal organ to the
semen, presumably in order to ‘suck’ the fluid. Contrary to the
experience of Petrunkevitch (1911) with Dugesiella hentzi, L. chaperi
males are extremely sensitive to disturbances of any kind during this
process.

For approximately 24 hours after sperm induction the males of L.
chaperi do not attempt to mate. It is possible that during this period
the spermatozoa undergo physiological changes in the palpal organ.

Courtship. Montgomery (1903, 1910) mentions the importance of
secondary sexual characters in courtship. In L. chaperi there is no
marked development of secondary sexual characters apart from the
conspicuously black tarsi and metatarsi of the front pair of legs.

The courtship period is very short, presumably because the two sexes
are of equal strength and build. Petrunkevitch (1911) and Kaston (1936)
mention that courtship in spiders exploits the senses most highly
developed in them. Kaston (1936) remarks that either or both the
senses of sight and touch are involved in the courtship of certain vaga-
bond spiders. It appears that both sight and touch are involved in the
courtship of L. chaperi. The sense of touch seems to be of greater
importance, because males were noticed to attempt mating upon random
contact with females.

Savory (1928) and Gertsch (1949) have reported the use of signals
through the silken threads of the web during courtship in some spiders.
Gering (1953) also observed similar behaviour in three species of Agelena.
As, however, /. chaperi is a ground-dweller, the females do not always
spin a web and the approach of the male to the female is direct.

When placed together in a cage, both the male and the female remain
inactive for a few minutes. Courtship begins only when the male
accidentally comes across the female. Immediately, the male poses
with raised body and extended pedipalps (Fig. 1). Slowly he advances
towards the female with palpi and front legs elevated and the latter
directed towards her (Fig. 2). The metatarsi and the tarsi of the front
legs tremble violently during the advance, as if performing a dance.
When he reaches close enough to her there is an interplay of the front
legs of both. She tries to drive him away, but he overpowers her and
climbs on her (Fig. 3).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES j 7a

Precopulation. During precopulation the male establishes contact
with the female after proper positioning. The female meanwhile remains
passive in a state of catalepsy, involving the entire body especially the

Fig. 1. Position of a male on contact
with a female

Fig. 2. Posture of a male while advancing towards
a female

Fig. 3. A male and female in readiness for copulation

legs. As soon as the male establishes contact the female drops to the

substratum, with the first and the second pair of legs pointing forward

and third and fourth pair pointing backward. The male lifts her body

and turns her abdomen slightly with his first pair of legs. After adjust-
13

572. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

ment of the body position his body lies at an angle of about 45° with
the long axis of her body (Fig. 4).

Fig.4. A maleand a female engaged in copulation

There is no resting stage following the positioning phase and copula-
tion follows immediately.

Copulation. In spiders copulation may be defined as the physical
contact between the palpal organs of the male and the epigynum of the
female. | ;

In L. chaperi, immediately after the positioning phase, the male
begins to tap the epigynum of the female with his palpi. The number
of attempts made before inserting the palpal organ into the female
Opening vary. Finally, contact is established by a slight twist of the
palpus and further adjustment in the body position (Fig. 4). The palpal
organ fits into the furrow-sac at the anterior end of the epigynal opening.
The furrow-sac can be compared with the coupling cavity in Agelenid
spiders (Gering 1953). The right and left palpal organs are used alter-
nately for insertion into the female organ. During this act the male
jerks his abdomen and hind legs vigorously and taps the abdomen of the
female with his forelegs. The duration of copulation in L. chaperi may
vary from two to forty-five minutes.

A single female has been observed to mate with as many as 10 males
on the same day, but a male after one mating avoids contact with
females.

PANJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY,
LUDHIANA (PUNJAB), R. D. S. BHATNAGAR

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

PANJAB UNIVERSITY, G. L. SADANA
CHANDIGARH (PUNJAB), |
April 7, 1965.

lie Pe

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

573

LITERATURE CITED

BrISTOWE, W. S., & LocKET, G. H.
(1926): The courtship of British Lycosid
spiders, and its probable significance.
Proc. zool. Soc. London 2 : 317-347.

GERING, R. L. (1953): Structure and
function of the genitalia in some Ameri-
can Agelenid spiders. Smithsonian Misc.
Coll. 121 (4): 1-84.

GERTSCH, W. J. (1949): American spi-
ders. New York.

KASTON, B. J. (1936) : The senses in-
volved in the courtship of some vaga-
Somes Ent, Amer., N.S., 16 (2) :
97-167.

70 : 1-874.

MontTGoMery, T. H., Jr. (1903) :
Studies on the habits of spiders, particu-
larly those of the mating period. Proc.
Acad. Sci. Philadelphia 55 : 59-149.
(1910): Significance of
the courtship and secondary sexual
characters of araneads. Amer. Nat. 44:
151-177.

PETRUNKEVITCH, A. (1911): Sense of
sight, courtship and mating in Dugesiella
hentzi (Girard), a theraphosid spider
from Texas. Zool. Jahrb., Anat. 31:
355-376.

es en ee ee

-——-— (1948). Spiders of Connec-
ticut State. Geol. nat. Hist. Sury. Bull,

Savory, T. H. (1928) : The biology of
spiders. Sidgwick and Jackson, London.

25. A NEW SPECIES OF EPICROSEJUS BERLESE (ACARINA :
EPICROSEJIDAE) FROM SITALA IN WEST BENGAL

(With two plates containing ten figures)

The genus epicrosejus Berlese is, at present, represented by five
species: angelioides Berlese (1904) from Java, E. seioides Berlese (1910)
from Java, Tahiti (Berlese 1918), Marquesas Islands (Vitzthum 1935),
E. scutatus Berlese (1923) from Sumatra; E. zimmermani Tragardh (1953)
from Mangareva Islands, E. porosus Domrow (1956) from Green Ant
Islands. The species, described below from India, is the second record
of the genus from the Indian Sub-Region.

Epicrosejus abinashi sp. nov.

_ Female. The dorsum (length 0°684 mm.; width 0:540-0-558 mm.)
is partly covered by the anterior, median, and posterior shields. All
dorsal setae are pilose. The anterior dorsal shield is triangular, a little
wider than long, and bears about thirty-one pairs of setae. The anterior
shield is surrounded by inter-scutal membrane except at the anterior end
(Plate I, Fig. 1). The median dorsal shield ig somewhat rectangular in
shape and bears twelve pairs of setae (omitting the setae on the ‘cunei-
_ form areas’). The anterior and posterior ‘ cuneiform areas ’ are provided
with five and two setae each, respectively. The median shield is entirely
surrounded by inter-scutal membrane. The posterior dorsal shield
consists of two shields with a median longitudinal groove bearing no
setae, which is continuous with a similar ventral strip behind the anus.
Each of the two posterior shields bears ten to eleven setae. The

574. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

posterior shield does not extend to the margin of the body except at the
posterior edge.

The tritosternum has a basal part and a pair of pilose laciniae. It is
flanked by variable number of processes. The most distinctive feature
of the intercoxal region is shown in Plate I, Figure 2. The ventri-anal
shield is large and provided with a number of setae, The postero-lateral
margin of the ventri-anal shield carries two pairs of projections, the
median pair much shorter than the lateral pair. Each lateral projection
terminally bears avery long seta, 0°224-0:230 mm. in length; the
remainder of the chaetotaxy of this projection is composed of short
setae as arranged in the figure. Each median projection carries a seta,
0:144-0:154 mm. in length. Ventrally, the inter-scutal membrane bears
about eight pairs of setae, some of-which are situated on a distinct
sclerite (not shown in the figure). The stigma lies between coxae III and
IV; the peritreme extends beyond coxa 1. The peritremetal shield is
anteriorly coalesced with the dorsal shield whilst its post-stigmatal
extension partly encircles coxae IV.

The tectum is two-pronged and ey eal with numerous small
spiniform processes at the base (Plate I, Fig.3). The trochanter, femur, and
genu of the pedipalp (Plate I, Fig. 4) are provided with two, five, and six
setae respectively. The apotele of tarsus is two-pronged. The dentition
of the chelicera is shown in Plate I, Figure 5. The gnathosoma very
characteristically lacks capitular setae and is provided with numerous
spiniform processes which are arranged in a pattern as shown in Plate II,
Figure 6. The rostral, external posterior, and internal posterior rostral
setae are 0°040, 0:036-0°040, and 0:052-0:060 mm. long respectively.
Seven rows of deuto-sternal denticles lie on the ventral groove of the
gnathosoma.

Tarsus I (c. 0:164 mm. in length) bears terminally a pair of long setae
(0:076-0°080 mm.) and lacks an ambulacrum (Plate II, Fig. 7). Tarsi II-IV
terminate in relatively long pretarsi provided with pulvilli and claws.

Male. The structures and chaetotaxy of the dorsum (length and
width of the slightly distorted specimen have not. been measured) are
essentially the same as those of the female (Fig.8).

The venter resembles the female’s, excepting the ‘ sterniti-genital ’
area. The genital orifice lies between sternal setae I and II,and is
covered by a circular disc (Plate II, Fig. 9). The anterior margin of the
sterniti-genital shield is ill defined and its posterior end is situated at
the level of coxae IV. It bears seven pairs of setae, indicating that it is
composed of the sternal, metasternal, and part of the ventral shields.
The ventri-anal shield has the same facies as that of the female, and the
terminal setae of the median and lateral projections measure 0-142-0-152
and 0:204-0.216 mm. in length, respectively.

The structures of the tectum and the pedipalp are apparently the same

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

Epicrosejus abinashi sp. nov.

Figs. 1-5. Female: 1. dorsum; 2. venter; 3. tectum; 4. genuof pedipalp; 5. chelicera

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc. PLATE II

Epicrosejus abinashi sp. nov.

Figs. 6-7. Female: 6. venter of gnathosoma; 7. tarsus of leg I. Figs. 8-10.
Male: §&. dorsum; 9. venter; 10. chelicera

MISCELLANEOUS, NOTES 575
as in the female. The chelicera is shown in Plate II, Figure 10. The
rostral, external posterior, and internal posterior rostral setae are
0:036-0:040, 0:040, and 0:052-0:056 mm. long respectively. The
capitular seta is absent.

Tarsus I is 0°152-0°160 mm. long and terminally bears a pair of long
setae, 0°076-0.080 mm. long. It lacks an ambulacrum. Tarsi II-IV have
ambulacra.

Locality: The holotype female, allotype male, and thirteen paratype
females from rotten straw (Sitala, near Sonarpur, 24 Parganas District,
West Bengal, S. K. Bhattacharyya, 5.10.1963), are deposited in the
collection of the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Remarks: Epicrosejus abinashi sp. nov. is closely related to
E. porosus Domrow, 1956 and E. zimmermani Tragardh, 1953. The new
species may be readily distinguished from E. porosus by the number and
disposition of the setae on the dorsum, the shape and setation of the
ventri-anal shield, the distinctive features of the sterniti-genital shield and
its setation in the male, and the dentition of the chelicera. The‘new species
is also readily separated from E. zimmermani by the presence of the
four ‘ cuneiform areas’ and the total absence of any longitudinal suture
on the median shield, the posterior shield lacking fusion in the middle,
the shape and setal pattern of the ventri-anal shield, the shape of the
genual setae on the palp, and the dentition of the chelicera.

This species is named after the author’s father, Professor Abinash Ch.

Bhattacharyya.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Iam indebted to Dr. D. N. Raychaudhury for his keen interest in
the work, to Prof. J. L. Bhaduri for giving me the necessary facilities in his
Department.

This investigation was supported by a Seniom Research Fellowship
from the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research of India.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,
UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA,
CALCUTTA,

February 19, 1965. .

S. K. BHATTACHARYYA!

REFERENCES
Reef. Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. W.81:

BERLESE, A. (1904): Acari nuovi.
Manipulus IV. Acaridi Giava. Redia2: 197-216.,
154-176. TRAGARDH, I. (1953): Acarina, col-

__——-— (1910) : Lista di nuove specie e
uovi generidi Acari. ibid.6: 242-271.
——-— (1918): Centuria quarta di
Acari nuovi. ibid.13: 115-190.
——-— (1923): Centuria sesta di acari
nuovi. ibid. 15 : 237-262.
Domrow, R. (1956): Some Acarina
Mesostigmata from the Great Barrier

4 Present address : Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta 20.

lected by the Mangarevan expedition to
South Eastern Polynesia in 1934 by the
Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu,
Hawaii Mesostigmata. Ark. Zool. Sto-
ckholm 4: 45-90.

VitzTHuM, H.G. (1935): Terrestrische
Acarinen von den Marquesas. Bull.
Bishop Mus. Honolulu 142: 64-99.

576 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

26. ODONTOTERMES OBESUS (RAMBUR)
[TERMITIDAE : MACROTERMITINAE] AT 4500 FT. IN
KUMAON HIMALAYAS

On 14 October 1962 in the course of geological exploration in the
Binsar area of the Kumaon Himalayas (Almora District, Uttar Pradesh),
I came across an active mound of the termite Odontotermes obesus
(Rambur) at Siya village (4500 ft. alt. ; c. 29° 40’ N., 79° 55’ E.) ; about
10 miles NE. of Binsar.

The mound made of brownish earth was about one metre high with
a number of narrow buttresses all around. It was the sole mound seen
by me in that area and was situated in a grassy patch on a hill-slope
and near two small pine trees. The rock in that area is mostly
ferruginous quartzite and pink slates. I collected from the mound
some soldiers and workers which have been deposited in the Zoological
Survey of India and were identified by Mr. O. B. Chhotani as Od. obesus.
Tam informed that this is the common mound-building termite in the

plains and foothills practically all over India, but its occurrence at the
present high elevation is uncommon, though records from south India
are available (Holmgren & Holmgren 1917, pp. 146-149) up to 4500 ft.
in the Shevaroy Hills and 4600 ft. in the Bababudin Hills.

DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY,

PATNA UNIVERSITY, GANPAT SINGH ROONWAL
PATNA,

April 10, 1965.

27. STUDIES ON THE MORPHOLOGY AND TAXONOMY
| OB INDIAN BOSTRYCHIDAE
VI. A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS BOSTRYCHOPSIS
LESNE FROM INDIA (COLEOPTERA : BOSTRYCHIDAE)

(With one plate)

Bostrychopsis roonwali sp. nov.
MALE

Colour :; Piceous ; antennae, palpi, and tarsi fusco-piceous.

Head strongly convex, densely, finely punctate, with a narrow
longitudinal line at middle and short, fine, longitudinal, parallel carinae
on occiput, pubescence consisting of short, recumbent, whitish hair ;
clypeus convex, densely, coarsely punctate, densely clothed with short
semi-recumbent, yellowish white hairs, arcuately emarginate anteriorly ;
clypeal suture depressed at middle, obscure at sides ; labrum subtruncate

an
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JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc.

Bostrychopsis roonwali sp. nov.

a. Male, dorsal view; 5. Female, dorsal view; c. Clypeus, dorsal view ;
d. Labrum, dorsal view ; e. Antenna; /. Pronotum, side view; g. Elytral punc-
tures ; A. Hind tibia (a portion) and tarsus; i, Male genitalia, dorsal view : LL—late-
ral lobe ; MIL—median lobe

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 577

and densely pubescent anteriorly, finely, indistinctly punctate. Anten-
nae 10-segmented ; antennal club sparsely pubescent, first and second
segments of antennal club subtriangular; third oval; antennal club
longer than funicle (1:2 : 0°9 mm.).

Pronotum strongly convex, distinctly longer than wide (5:5 :4°9 mm. ),
widest behind middle ; sides broadly rounded posteriorly ; converging
anteriorly, with a long, stout, unciform horn at apical angles ; anterior
margin truncate; postero-lateral angles broadly rounded ; surface densely
coarsely imbricate—punctate on basal half, densely, irregularly dentate
on apical half, the teeth broad, semi-erect, variable in size and rasp-like,
with six larger ones on each side along antero-lateral margin ; pubescence
consisting of short, recumbent, inconspicuous, whitish sparse hair.

Scutellum subquadrate, rounded at apex, finely, sparsely punctate.

Elytra strongly convex, more than one and a half times as long as
pronotum (9:6 : 5°5 mm.), sinuate at base; sides subparallel, slightly
expanded posteriorly, conjointly, broadly rounded at apices; surface
densely, coarsely, deeply, irregularly punctate, punctures smaller on
sides. Elytral vestiture consisting of short, recumbent, inconspicuous,
whitish hair. Apical declivity obliquely deflexed, with a small, blunt
tubercle on each side along lateral margin; sutural margins slightly,
broadly, uniformly elevated on apical declivity.

Ventral surface: Piceous, densely, finely punctate, densely clothed
with moderately long, recumbent, yellowish hairs ; last visible abdominal
sternite rounded and densely pubescent at apex.

Genitalia as figured (Plate, i), elongate, subparallel. Median lobe
bluntly pointed at apex, shorter than lateral lobes, which are rounded
and moderately pubescent at apices.

FEMALE

Differs from the male as follows: Clypeus less densely pubes-
cent; pronotum without horns at apical angles; tubercles on apical
declivity of elytra less prominent; last visible abdominal sternite
subtruncate at apex.

Length: 14°5-15 mm.

Breadth: 4°7-4°8 mm.
Type-LocALtiTy. Lachhiwala (Dehra Dun District, Uttar Pradesh,
India).
Type-Host.. Shorea robusta Gaertn. f.
Type MATERIAL. Holotype, male: Lachhiwala (Dehra Dun District,
Uttar Pradesh, India), 25. viii. 1962, K. Rai. Allotype, female: same
data as for holotype. Paratypes, 2: same data as for holotype.
Material deposited in the Entomological Collection, Forest Research
Institute, Dehra Dun.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. Known only from the type locality,
COMPARISON. This species is allied to B. bengalensis (Lesne), from

578 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

‘which it is distinguished as follows: pronotum widest behind middle ;
larger size ; each elytron with a small, blunt tubercle on apical declivity,
tarsi shorter.

I name this species after Dr. M. L. Roonwal, Director, Zoological
Survey of India, in token of the high regard in which I hold him.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

34, CHITTARANJAN AVENUE, KULDIP RAI
CALCUEBIA 12, Asst. Zoologist
May 14, 1965.

28. A STUDY OF THE LARVAL STAGES OF BRANCHINELLA
BISWAST K. K. TIWARI (CRUSTACEA: BRANCHIOPODA)

(With: two plates)

MATERIAL

Adult male and female specimens of the shrimp Branchinella biswasi
(Plate I) were netted from Sambhar Lake, Rajasthan, in the month of
August 1962 after plentifulrain and were released in an empty cemented
salt pan in which rain-water had collected. After a few days the females
were examined and were found to have large ovisacs full of eggs. The
females averaged 27 mm. in length and 6 mm. in breadth with the
ovisac extending to the 4th abdominal segment. The size of the males
recorded prior to their release in the pan was 20 mm. tn length and
4 mm. in breadth at the cephalic region. The animals became senile and
died after a short time leaving floating masses of light brown eggs.

As the breeding behaviour was not observed it was not possible to
state whether the shrimps copulated in the pan and, if so, whether the
eggs were fertilized or not. The eggs had shells and averaged 0°10 mm.
in diameter.

HATCHING or SEEDING

After a lapse of one year the eggs were sprinkled over the surface of
clear fresh water in a -glass trough and left undisturbed. The room
temperature varied between 28° to 38° C.in twenty-four hours. The
larvae were collected every twelve hours and examined.

The Branchinella undergo few changes during their larval develop-
ment, due to their simple anamorphic growth by which the body and
the appendages are completed and brought to adult condition through
successive stages. The Branchinella are thus of interest as they show

JouRN. BompBay NArtT. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

FEMALE

Branchinella biswasi K. K. Tiwari—Adult

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE II

Branchinella biswasi K. K. Tiwari

Fig. 1. Unhatched prolarva 8 hours after seeding; Fig. 2. Newly hatched
nauplius larva at 12 hours after seeding; Fig. 3. 24-hour old metanauplius
larva; Fig. 4. Advanced metanauplius larva at 48 hours

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Biyie!

development from the simple nauplius to the adult. The development
is accompanied by specialization of the post-gnathal appendages for
swimming purposes. The antennae change from biramous stenopoda to
phyllopoda at the end of the process.

OBSERVATIONS

Unhatched prolarva

Plate II, Fig.1 shows the unhatched prolarva 8 hours after seeding
in fresh water at room temperature. It is still encased within the
transparent shell membrane, the body of the post embryo is disting-
uished into cephalic and trunk regions by a slight constriction situated
approximately 4 distance from the summit. A pair of rudimentary first
appendages are visible as small stumps. The entire structure is a
congregation of cells aggregating mostly at the margins of the prolarva.

Nauplius larva

The newly hatched larva is a typical Branchiopod nauplius. Plate II,
Fig. 2 shows it at 12 hours after seeding at room temperature. [Its size
ranges from 1:27 mm. to 1:34mm. The anterior region is segmented and
posteriorly the trunk ends in a median anal opening. It has three pairs
of cephalic appendages—a pair of antennules, antennae, and a pair of
mandibles. There is a conspicuous median simple eye and rudiments
of maxillae are discernible below the mandibles, and a large labrum.
The antennae. are the main swimming appendages. The larvae swim
vigorously on the water surface in search of food particles and are
-phototropic. The alimentary canal is clearly visible with dark particles
all along its length.

Metanauplius larva

The 24-hour old larva (Plate II, Fig. 3) is about 2°5 mm. in length.
Internal compound eyes are visible, due to their pigmentation. The
antennules are still short and unsegmented. The antennae and the
mandibles are reduced in length. The post-gnathal lobes are very well
developed and the maxillary gland is visible below the mandibles. The
posterior part of the body is greatly lengthened and bears six pairs of
_ well-developed ‘ phyllopodia’ type legs in addition to five pairs of leg
rudiments. At the terminal end there isa protuberance on the left side
which develops into the caudal furcum.

Advanced metanauplius larva

At 48 hours (Plate II, Fig. 4) the metanauplius larva measures 3-5 mm.
in length. The thoracic appendages are progressively developed from
the cephalic to the caudal end in a regressive sequence. Each of the

580 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

phyllopoda is now biramous, anterior thoracic appendages. are clearly
divisible into a bilobed exopodite and a broad segmented endopodite
and an epipodite at its base. All the segments of the appendages bear
spines. The antennae now tend to lose their typical stenopodial biramous
structure adapted for swimming and appear as broad phyllopods as in
the adult. The caudal furci are represented by a pair of stumps with
scarce bristles. |

Juvenile stage

The juvenile attains a length of 4 mm.at the completion of larval
development. It more or less resembles the adult except for the difference
in size and the absence of the ovisac or a pair of penial structures.
The sex of the animal is not ascertainable at this stage. The eyes,
sessile in their first appearance, now become pedunculated. The lateral
lobes on which they are located lengthen and separate from rest of the
head. region.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author is grateful to Dr. K. K. Tiwari for his kindness in
identifying the specimens obtained by him for the purpose of these
observations.

GOVERNMENT COLLEGE,
AJMER, RAJASTHAN, TEJ SINGH
October 2, 1964. ¢

29. FURTHER RECORDS OF MARINE WOOD-BORERS
(TEREDINIDAE : MOLLUSCA) FROM BOMBAY WATERS

Shipworms of the family Teredinidae are fairly common in Indian
waters and nine species have been recorded from the Bombay coast
(Palekar et al, 1964). In the course of a systematic study of the incidence
and control of marine wood-borers at Bombay, two additional species
hitherto unrecorded from the Bombay coast were collected and are
briefly reported in this note. :

During March 1964, a single specimen of Bankia nordi Moll 69 mm.
long (terminal portion of the pallets missing) was ‘collected from a
destroyed timber piece at the Sewri timber pond. On 2 November 1964,
four specimens of Teredo clappi Bartsch (all ovigerous females, ranging
from 17 mm. to 21 mm.in length) were collected from the base of a
living mangrove tree at Cuffe Parade. The holes on the mangrove stem
were situated 7 to9 in, above mud level and about 36 in. below high

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 581

water mark. Subsequent attempts to procure additional specimens of
the above two species have not been successful.

B. nordi has been recently recorded from Pamban (Rameswaram)
(Nair 1962) and the present record extends its distribution to the west
coast of India. Singapore, Indo-China, Sumatra, and New Guinea are
the other localities from which this species has been reported.

Certain borers belonging to the genera Teredo, Bankia, and Bactro-
nophorus are known to attack living mangroves (Roonwal 1954,
Ganapati & Rao 1959), though T. clappi has not so far been known to
have this tendency. This species, known from Florida, Bermuda, West
Indies, the Caribbean coast (canal zone), Virgin Islands, and Puerto
Rico, has not so far been recorded from the Indian coast. However,
Turner (personal communication dated 3-1-1965) is of the view that
T. (Zopoteredo) trulliformis Miller reported from Visakhapatnam (Naga-
bhushanam 1955) and 7. (Coeloteredo) renschi Roch reported from
Madras (Nair 1964) are synonymous with 7. clappi. If this view is
accepted 7. clappi, with the present record from Bombay, would appear
to be not so very rare in Indian waters.

The author is indebted to Dr. (Miss) Ruth D. Turner for help in
identification of the species and to Shri K. H. Alikunhi for guidance
and encouragement during the course of this study and for critically
going through the manuscript.

WooD PRESERVATION CENTRE,
CENTRAL INSTITUTE OF FISHERIES
EDUCATION,
P. B. No. 5075, BOMBAY 9-BR,
November 4, 1965. :

L. N. SANTHAKUMARAN,
Research Officer

REFERENCES

GANAPATI, P. N., RAO, M. V. LAKsH-
MANA (1959) : Incidence of marine wood
borers in the Mangroves of the Goda-
vary Estuary. Curr. Sci. 28(8) : 332.

NAGABHUSHANAM, R. (1955) : A syste-
matic account of the molluscan wood
borers of Visakhapatnam harbour. Rec.
Indian Mus. 53 (1 & 2): 1.

Narr, N. B. (1955) : Shipworms from
India—Part II. Seven more shipworms
from South India. ibid. 53 (1 & 11): 261.

———— (1962) : Incidence of marine
wood boring molluscs on the South East
Coast of India. Curr. Sci. 31 (7) : 290.

——-—— (1964) : Some observations
on the problem of marine timber des-
troying organisms of Indian coasts.
Fishery Technology 1 (1) : 87.

PALEKAR, V. C., SANTHAKUMARAN,
L.N., & BAL, D. V. (1964): A preli-

/minary note on the Teredinidae of

Bombay coast. Jour. T. D. & P. A., India
10 (3): 11.

RoonwaL, M. L. (1954) : Bactrono-
phorus thoracites (Gould) as a pest of
living trees in the Sunderbans, Bengal,
ee Teredinidae). Curr. Sci. 23 (9):

582. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

30. OZOBRANCHUS BRANCHIATUS (MENZIES, 1791)
(HIRUDINEA : ANNELIDA)
FROM PULICAT LAKE, SOUTH INDIA

As revised by the present author (1954) the genus Ozobranchus
de Quatrefages, 1852 which includes the rather rare gill-bearing leeches,
has six species all of them generally ectoparasitic on chelonians. Of
them, only O. shipleyi Harding, O. papillatus Kaburaki, and O. poly-
branchus Sanjeeva Raj were then recorded from India. Subsequently
(1959), the author recorded O. margoi Apathy, more than a thousand
specimens, collected from Eretmochelys imbricata (Linnaeus) on the
coast at Ennore (12 miles north of Madras). Recently Ghosh ef al.
(1963) recorded O. branchiatus (Menzies) from an unidentified turtle on
Pirotan Island, Gulf of Kutch.

On 14th October 1964 some post-graduate students and I, while
collecting on Pulicat Lake, a large brackish-water lake north of Madras,
found two large dead Chelonia mydas (Linn.) on the shore. These two
turtles were said to have been captured the previous day from the lake,
about half a mile from the sea. Both were infested heavily, on the
carapace as well as the plastron, with large-sized Chelonobia testudi-
narium Linnaeus. One of the turtles carried on its plastron, just
adjacent to the Chelonobia patch, a large cluster of leeches recently dead
but still quite fresh, gorged with the host blood. They were removed
with a scalpel into strong alcohol, about one hundred of them, all be-
longing to Ozobranchus branchiatus (Menzies, 1791).

All these leeches were light flesh-coloured except the posterior part of
the abdomen, which was blood-red due to their blood-gorged gut. They
ranged from 2 mm. to 9mm. in total length (inclusive of suckers) and
about 1 mm. to 3 mm. in width (inclusive of gills). The younger
specimens (from 2 mm. to 3°5 mm. in total length) clearly showed a pair
of dark eye-spots on the dorsum of the neck just over the anterior
sucker, which really ought to be segment IV. The anterior sucker in
most diagrams of this leech has been figured as cup-shaped, but in the
present collection some of the younger specimens, up to 2°5 mm. in total
length, show the anterior sucker as well spread-out and circular, very
much like the posterior sucker but about half its diameter and rather
thinner and more translucent. The rim of the anterior sucker is so thin
that soon after death it curves inwards so as to look like a cup.
Ghosh et al. have erroneously called this the mouth; the mouth isa
small circular opening, a little anterior to the centre of the sucker, often
not easily conspicuous to the naked eye (Sanjeeva Raj & Penner 1962).

Additional information about this leech including a description of the
annulation of the neck is given by Sanjeeva Raj & Penner (1962). The

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 583

presence of eyes in younger forms and their apparent absence in adults
is due to their sinking into the parenchyma (MacCallum & MacCallum
1918, Sanjeeva Raj & Penner 1962). The specimens from Pirotan Island
showed no eyes, but in the present collection eyes are visible in indivi-
duals up to a total length of 3-5 mm. and, even after that stage, they
can be demonstrated either by clearing or by pressing the eye region
strongly between two slides. 7

The host for the Pirotan Island recovery was not identified. Apart
from this O. branchiatus has so far always been collected from the
Green Turtle, Chelonia mydas (Linn.). It is interesting to note that
when the host gets into brackish waters, both the host and its epizoic -
forms like Chelonobia and this leech tolerate prolonged exposure to
lowered salinities. Members of this genus have been collected from
estuarine waters before, namely O. polybranchus Sanjeeva Raj from the
Vellar Estuary at Porto-Novo (1951). These leeches can live for some
time on the host after the death of the host and can tolerate dessication
to some extent as they have a mucous exterior. In most earlier collec-
tions, this leech has been found associated with either bruised parts or
tumorous growths on the host. Similarly, this time it was found
around patches bruised by the attachment of Chelonobia. It is obvious
that such oozing patches on the horny exterior of the chelonians provide
an easy blood meal.

Ozobranchus branchiatus (Menzies) is now known from the Tropical
Pacific, Australia, Isles of Ogaswara (Japan), Florida, Sarawak, and the
‘east and west coasts of India. Therefore, its range of distribution
though broadly confined to the tropics and subtropics is now extended
throughout the Indian coast and even into brackish waters. The leech
seems to be rather host-specific to Chelonia mydas (Linn.).

MacCallum & MacCallum (1918), who obtained egg-capsules of this
leech from Florida, noted that just-hatched young ones may be about
1:2 mm. in total length. Many individuals of the present collection
measured about 2°0 mm. indicating that these leeches were probably
recently hatched, so that we may take it that they breed in about the
month of October in the Pulicat Lake.area.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, |
MaprAS CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, P. Jj. SANJEEVA RAJ
TAMBARAM, SOUTH INDIA,

April 3, 1965. is

584

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

REFERENCES

GHosH, J. M., PEACE JOHNSON, & NA-
YAR, C.K. G. (1963) : On the occurrence
of the leech Ozobranchus branchiatus
(Menzies, 1791) (Hirudinea) in India
(Gulf of Kutch). J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc.60 (2) : 469-471.

MacCa.L_um, W. G., & MACCALLUM,
G. A. (1918): On the anatomy of
Ozobranchus branchiatus (Menzies). Bull.
Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 38 : 395-408.

SANJEEVA Raj, P. J. (1951) : Ona new
species of Ozobranchus (Annelida : Hiru-
dinea: Family Ichthyobdellidae) from

———— —— (1954): A synopsis of
the genus Ozobranchus (de Quatrefages

nat. Hist. Soc. 52 : 473-480.

—— (1959): Occurrence of
Ozobranchus margoi Apathy (Hirudinea :
Annelida) in the Indian seas. Curr. Sci.
28 : 496.

———-———. & Penner, L. R. (1962) :
Concerning Ozobranchus branchiatus
(Menzies, 17913) (Piscicolidae: Hirudi-
nea) from Florida and Sarawak. Trans.
Amer. Mic. Soc. LXxx!: 364-371.

ees es

Porto-Novo, South India. J. Zool. Soc.
India, 3: 1-5.

31. STUDIES ON THE CHAETOGNATHA OF THE INDIAN
SEAS. PART VIII. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF SAGITTA
FEROX DONCASTER AND S. HEXAPTERA D’ORBIGNY IN THE
WATERS OFF VISAKHAPATNAM!

During the course of our work on the plankton of the waters of the —
Visakhapatnam coast (1952-58), 16 species of Chaetognaths have already
been reported to occur here (refer previous Parts I-VII). In the present
note the occurrence of two more species namely S. ferox and S. hexap-
tera, recorded for the first time from the waters off Visakhapatnam, are
dealt with. 3

Sagitta ferox Doncaster _ |

There has been some confusion in the literature with regard to the
proper identification of this species. As S. ferox bears a very close
resemblance to S. robusta Doncaster, there have been attempts to synony-
mise the two species. Ritter-Zahony (1911) placed S. ferox as a synonym
of S. robusta and similarly Burfield & Harvey (1926) merged the two
species on the grounds of similarity of head armature. However,
Thomson (1947) kept them separate and has recorded certain constant
differences in body proportions and in the shape of seminal vesicles
between the.two species. Besides, in S. robusta the head and collarette
are broader than in S. ferox and the former attains a larger size than the
latter. Doncaster (1902), also, found similar differences between the two
species occurring here as shown in the following table. For comparison
‘Warren ’ material from Thomson (1947) is added just to show the range
of variation in the species.

1 Read at the seminar on ‘ Some Aspects of Plankton Research’ held at Porto
Novo in March 1964.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 585

Tokioka (1956) recorded S. ferox from the central part of the Indian
Ocean. In the waters of the Lawson’s Bay it is present from February
to May and occurs in fewer numbers than S. robusta.

‘ Warren’ material Lawson’s Bay material

robusta ferox robusta ferox
Width Si 6°1-6°6 5°5-5°8 6°0-8°7 4°4-6°74
Width of head lp HAMA! 78:3) ah 832100 | 87-120
Length of anterior fin .. 25°5-30°4 21°1-22°7 28°0-30°98 22°2-24°0

Length of posterior fin.. | 25°4-30°8 25°0-27°8 26°3-28°5 26°8-27°7 :

Nore. The measurements are percentages of the total length of the body.

S. hexaptera d’Orbigny, 1843

This is probably the largest species found in the present collection
and has been obtained from the plankton during March to May, but
absent in other months. The following are the average measurements
of the adult specimens from this coast :

Maximum length .. 28mm.
Tail segment .. 17:9 to 21°3 (%t otal body length)
Width of the head ia 2d 2 to 6:0 do.
Anterior fin be aD SELON 43 do.
Posterior fin eo @2 87 toL23:3 do.
Distance between anterior and ventral

fins .- 13°0to 14°6 do.
Percentage of posterior fin in front of

tail septum .. more than 60%
Jaws .. T0Oto 8:0
Anterior teeth .. 20 to40
Posterior teeth -> 3°O:to.7°0

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to acknowledge the help and counsel provided by
Prof, P. N. Ganapati, Head of the Zoology Department, during the
course of this work.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

ANDHRA UNIVERSITY, T.S. SATYANARAYANA RAO!
WALTAIR,

September 30, 1965.

1 Present address: Indian Ocean Expedition, Council of Scientific & Industrial
Research, Bombay 1-BR.

586

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

REFERENCES -

BuRFIELD, S. T., & HARVEY, E. J. W.
(1926) : The Chaetognatha of the ‘ Sea-
lark’ Expedition. Trans. Linn. Soc.
London 19, part 1, pp. 93-119, pls. 4-7.

Doncaster, L. (1903) : Chaetognatha,
with a note on the variation and distri-
bution of the group. The fauna and
geography of the Maldive and Laccadive

Archipelagoes. 1 : 209-18.
RITTER-ZAHONY, R. VON (1911): Re-
vision der Chaetognathen. Deutsche

Sudpolar Exped. Bd. 13 (5) : 1-17.
GANAPATI, P. N., & SATYANARAYANA
Rao, T. S. (1954) : Studies on the Chae-
tognatha of the Indian seas. I. Seasonal
fluctuations in relation to salinity and
temperature. Andhra Univ. Mem. Ocea-
nogr. Ser. 49,1: 143-150.
SATYANARAYANA RAO, T. S. (1958a) :
Studies on the Chaetognatha of the
Indian seas. II. The Chaetognatha of
the Lawson’s Bay. ibid. 62, 2 : 137-146.
—————-—(1958b): op. cit.

32. STUDIES ON

IV. Distribution in relation to currents
ibid. 2: 164-167.

———_—_——_———— (1960) : op. cit.
V. Distribution of the Chaetognatha off
the Kakinada coast. Proc. All India
Congr. Zool. 2 : 370-375.

—————————— & GANAPATI,

P. N. (1958): op. cit. III. Systematics-
and distribution in the waters off
Visakhapatnam. Andhra Univ. Mem.
Oceanogr. Ser. 62,2 : 147-163.
& KELLY,
SARADA (1962a): op. cit. VI. On the
biology of Sagitta enflata Grassi in the
waters of Lawson’s Bay, Waltair. J. Zool.
Soc. India 14 (2) : 219-225.

Se (1962b) : op. cit.
VII. Some remarks on Sagitta bombay-
ensis Lele & Gaeibid. 14 (2) : 226-229.

THOMSON, J. M. (1947): The Chaetog-
natha of south-eastern Australia.
Council Sci. Ind. Res. Australia. Bull. No.
222, pp. 43.

— SS

THE CHAETOGNATHA OF THE

INDIAN SEAS. PART IX. DIURNAL VERTICAL
MIGRATION OF SOME SPECIES OF CHAETOGNATHA
IN THE WATERS OFF VISAKHAPATNAM ?

INTRODUCTION

Diurnal vertical migration of the planktonic organisms in the surface
layers of the sea is a well known phenomenon. The works of Michael
(1919), Russel (1931), and others have confirmed the occurrence of
vertical migration and they attribute this phenomenon mostly to the
effect of light on the plankton. More recently Moore et al. (1953) and
Owre (1960) have established some relationship between the vertical
distribution and temperature.

The present observations on the vertical migration of Chaetognatha
are based on the analysis of 94 samples of plankton collected at hourly
intervals both from the surface and at different depths during the
drifting cruises Nos. 2, 7, and 31 conducted in the waters off the
Visakhapatnam coast. A Nansen-type -of closing net was used for
vertical hauls of plankton. In the following account the vertical distri-
bution of 4 species of Chaetognatha, namely Sagitta enflata Grassi,
S. neglecta Aida, S. serratodentata Krohn, and Pterosagitta draco Krohn,
is described (see Parts I-VIII for other details of distribution in space
and time).

1 Formed part of the Doctoral thesis submitted by the author to the Andhra
University.

587

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 589°
VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION

Sagitta enflata (Table I)

Michael (1911) describes this species as_ strictly epiplanktonic.
According to Thiele (1938) the distribution of S. enflata is mostly
confined to the upper zone, extending between 0-50 metres, and it might
be present in waters below 400 metres. Owre (1960) has reported the
occurrence of diurnal vertical migration for this species in the Florida
current and found most of the forms occurring in the upper 200
metres.

Off the Waltair (Visakhapatnam) coast S. enflatais the most widely
distributed of all the species of Chaetognatha. Most of the forms were
collected in the upper 500 feet. A study of the Table I reveals the
interesting fact that there is a gradual decrease (see average values) in
numbers of this species with increase in depth both during the day and
night.

S. neglecta (Table II)

This is next only to S. enflata in abundance on this coast. Michael
(1911) found this form to be a typical surface-dwelling Chaetognath and
he never obtained it in open or closed vertical nets off San Diego.

During Cruise No. 2, this species showed a distinct increase in number
with depth during the day and surface concentrations in the night,
while the reverse was the case in the material collected during the
cruises No. 7 and 31. Like S. enflata this also is a surface-dwelling
form and perhaps does not show any large scale vertical diurnal
migration on this coast.

S. serratodentata (Table IIT)

Fowler (1906) considers this form to be surface-dwelling and also
mesoplanktonic. Owre (1960) found this form oddly distributed like
Sagitta enflata and S. hexapterain the waters of the Florida current.

S. serratodentata occurs in these waters only from January to
August and is considered as an indicator species of the northerly current
flowing past this coast during the above period. From the data presen-
ted in Table III it shows a scattered distribution at different depths both
during the day and night. However, the average values for the day and
night during the cruise No. 7 indicate an instance of vertical diurnal
migration. But in the material of the cruise No. 31 higher concentration
of this species was found in the surface waters both during the day and
night.

Pterosagitta draco (Table IV)

Fowler (1906) considers this form to be both neritic and oceanic.
Burfield & Harvey (1926) found this form to be distinctly epiplanktonic

—

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

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596 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

and they obtained the majority of their specimens between 25-100
fathoms. Owre (1960) noted marked diurnal vertical migration both at
Bermuda and Florida.

From a study of Table IV it is clear that P. draco is present mostly
in the subsurface waters both during the day and night and no special
concentration in the surface water is noticed at any time. As stated
elsewhere (Satyanarayana Rao 1958b) the occurrence of this form is
associated with up-welling on this coast.

SUMMARY

A total number of 94 hourly plankton samples taken from the
surface and different depths in the waters off Visakhapatnam were
analysed for studying the vertical distribution of some species of
Chaetognatha,

The results indicate that Sagitta enflata, S. neglecta, and S. serrato-
dentata are mostly surface-dwelling forms irrespective of night or day.
Pterosagitta draco seems to be mostly confined to subsurface waters.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I take this opportunity to express my gratitude to Prof. P. N. Gana-
pati, Head of the Department of Zoology, Andhra University, Waltair,
under whose direction the present work was carried out. The cruises
were made on the Indian Naval minesweepers under the general
direction of Prof. E. C. La Fond; the author is grateful to him and the
Naval Officers of the minesweepers for helping in the collection of
material.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,
ANDHRA UNIVERSITY,
WALTAIR,

September 30, 1965.

T. S. SATYANARAYANA RAO!

REFERENCES

BURFIELD, S. T., & HARVEY, E. J. W.
(1926) : The Chaetognatha of the Sealark
Expedition. Trans. Linn. Soc.. Lond.
(Zool.) 19 (1) : 93-119.

Fow ter, J. H. (1906) : The Chaetog-
natha of the Siboga Expedition. Siboga
Exped. Rept. 21: 1-86.

GANAPATI, P. N., & SATYANARAYANA
RAo, T. S. (1954) : Studies on the Chae-
tognatha of the Indian Seas. Part I.
Seasonal fluctuations in relation to sali-

nity and temperature. Andhra Univ.
Mem. Oceanogr. 49 (1): 143-150.
MicHAEL, E. L. (1911): Classification
and vertical distribution of the Chaetog-
natha of the San Diego region. Univ.
Calif. Publ. Zool. 8 (3) : 21-186
——_—-—-———- (1919): Report on the
Chaetognatha collected by the United
States Fisheries Steamer Albatross during
the Philippine Expedition, 1907-1910.
Bu U. S. Nat. Mus. 100, 1 (4), : 235-

1 Present address: Indian Ocean Expedition, Council of Scientific & Industrial

Research, Bombay 1-srR.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Moore, H.B., et al. (1953): Plankton

of the Florida Current III. The control
- of the vertical distribution of zooplank-
ton in the day time by light and
temperature. Bull. Mar. Sci. Buly. &
Carib. 3 (2) : 83-95.

- Owre, H. W. (1960): Plankton of the
Florida Current Part VI. The Chaetog-
natha. . ibid. 10 (3) : 255-322.

RusseL, F. S. (1931): The vertical
distribution of marine macroplankton. X.
Notes on the behaviour of Sagitta in the
Plymouth area. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. U.K.
17 (2) : 391-414.

SATYANARAYANA RAO, T. S. (1958a) :
Studies on the Chaetognatha of the
Indian Seas Part II. The Chaetog-
natha of the Lawson’s Bay, Waltair.
Andhra Univ. Mem. Oceanogr. Ser. 62,

2 : 137-146.

——— (1958b) : Studies on the
Chaetognatha of the Indian Seas Part IV.
Distribution in relation to currents. ibid.
Ser. 62, 2: 164-167.

—_—_-—-———-—- (1962): Studies on the
Chaetognatha of the Indian Seas Part V.
Distribution of the Chaetognatha off the

507

Kakinada Coast. Proc. I All India Cong.
Zool. Symp. 1959 : 370-9 .

—————., & GANAPATI, P.N. (1958) :
Studies on the Chaetognatha of the Indian
Seas Part III. Systematics and distribu-
tion in the waters off Visakhapatnam.
Andhra Univ. Mem. Oceanogr. Ser. 62,
2: 147-163.

—————, & SARADA KELLY (1962a) :
Studies on the Chaetognatha of the
Indian Seas Part VI. On the biology of
Sagitta enflata in the waters of Lawson’s
Bay, Waltair. J. Zool. Soc. India 14

(2);2 219-25;

————— (1962b): Studies on the
Chaetognatha of the Indian Seas Part VII.
Some remarks on Sagitta bombayensis
Lele and Gae 1966. ibid.: 226-229.

—_—_—_——__——. (1966) : Studies on the
Chaetognatha of the Indian Seas Part
VIII. Occurrence of Sagittaferox Don- |
caster and S. hexaptera d’Orbigny in the
waters off Visakhapatnam. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 62 (3) : 584-586.

THIELE, M. E. (1938): Die chaetog-
nathea-Bevolkeren des Sudatlantischen
Ozeans. Wiss. Ergebr. dtsch. atlant.
Exped. Meteor. 13 (1) : 1-110.

598 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

33. CUSCUTA CAMPESTRIS YUNCKER: A NEW RECORD ~
FOR INDIA

(With a text-figure)

During floristic studies of Calcutta and its suburbs, the junior author
collected near Dum Dum a species of Cuscuta which on examination
was identified as C. campestris Yuncker. The identification was
confirmed at the Central National Herbarium, Calcutta, after consulting
the WORLD MONOGRAPH ON THE GENUS cuscura by Yuncker. The
identity of the species was further confirmed by the kind courtesy of
Dr. W. H. Lewis, Director of the Herbarium, the Missouri Botanical
Garden, Missouri, where the holotype of the species (Lindheimer 1926)
is deposited. This is a new record for India and a description with
diagrams is given,

Cuscuta campestris Yuncker in Mem. Torrey bot. el 18:5 138, fo,
1932; van Ooststroom in Blumea3: 68, 1938 and FI. Males, 4: 392,
1953 C. arvensis Beyerich ex Engelm. in A. Gray, Man. Bot. (ed. 2.)
336, 1856, p. p. C. pentagona var. calycina Engelm. in Amer.
J. Sci. & Arts 45: 76, 1845. C. arvensis var. calycina Engelm. in
Trans. Acad. Sci. St Louis 1: 495, 1859.

Stems slender, filiform, terete, glabrous, orange to dull yellow-
coloured. Flowers 3-35 mm. long, dull yellow, in more or less many-
flowered compact clusters; pedicels 1-1°5 mm. long, glabrous; bracts
minute; calyx greenish yellow, campanulate, enclosing the corolla tube ;
lobes 5, broadly ovate, imbricate; corolla pale white, membranous,
campanulate; lobes 5, as long as the tube, broadly triangular, acute or
subacute, with incurved tips; stamens 5, shorter than corolla lobes,
alternating with them; filaments equal or longer than anthers ; anthers
ovate, basifixed; infrastaminal scales ovate, abundantly fimbriate,
exserted, bridged below the middle; ovary slightly depressed globose,
2-celled with 2 ovules in each cell; styles 2, slender, shorter than ovary ;
stigmas 2, capitate, peltate. Capsules 3 mm. in diameter, more or less
4-lobed, depressed globose with intrastylar opening, surrounded by
persistent corolla at their base, not circumscissile ; seeds 4, sometimes
only 2, -- 15 mm. long, brown ovate, minutely foveolate, depressed on
one side ; hilum short transverse. (Fig. 1-7)

Flowers and fruits. December to January.

Hosts. This parasite was found growing on the following hosts :
Cucurbita sp., Euphorbia sp., Lantana camara var. aculeata, and Mikania
scandens. Yuncker (loc.cit.) recorded this parasite on species of
Ambrosia, Ammi, Artemisia, Aster, Beta, Bidens, Callistephus, Capsicum,
Cirsium, Dianthera, Ipomoea, Pelargonium, Sonchus, Xanthium. In
Malaysia, according to van Ooststroom, ‘often on Medicago sativa,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 599

Trifolium and Satureja hortensis but also on a great number of other
herbaceous hosts’.

mm.

Cuscuta campestris Yuncker

Fig. 1. Flower; 2. Calyx; 3. Corollasplit open; 4. Infrastaminal sca!e ;
Ss: Ovary; 6:.-Capsule 5 7. Seed. .

Distribution. The parasite is a native of North America and is
reported from West Indies, Argentina, Great Britain, France, Italy,
Hungary, Africa, China, Japan, Java, Australia, Polynesia, and Tahiti.

‘Herbarium specimens examined. Korlahalli 602, 620—deposited in
CAL.

Field notes. The parasite was found growing vigorously on a number
of hosts, just near the outer signal of the Dum Dum railway station,
Though abundant at this spot, it appears to be an isolated patch, since
search for this plant in near-by places proved futile.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
14-MADAN STREET, H. SANTAPAU

CALcuTTA-13, . . B.C. KORLAHALLI
JULY 28, 4965.))

°600 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

34. OCCURRENCE OF LINDERNIA OPPOSITIFOLIA
(RETZ.) MUK. IN W. BENGAL

Lindernia oppositifolia is a herb of the second half of the monsoon;
it is profusely branched, erect or sub-erect, 7-15 cm. high, with angled
branches. Leaves opposite, but one of the pair is much reduced when
' subtending a flower. Generally flowers are axillary, solitary at a node,
less commonly one flower in each of the two axils; in every case the
subtending leaves are much reduced ; rarely do flowers pass into terminal
racemes, or appear in the axils of normal leaves. This character of the
inflorescence is typical of the plant, and very obvious in the field.

This plant is common in south India and Bombay. Haines in 1922
included it for Bihar on the authority of C. B. Clarke, but Mooney in
1950 had not seen the plant in Bihar. In 1951 Bressers reported this
species from Khuntibazar, Ranchi District, Bihar.

In Bengal, Voigt reported it from Serampore in 1845; Prain in his
BENGAL PLANTS, 1903, did not mention the species, and in 1905
considered Voigt’s report from Serampore very doubtful.

I have recently collected this species from Horispur in Howrah Dist.
My collection from W. Bengal, and _ Bressers’s from Ranchi
Dist. prove definitely that the plant occurs in the eastern parts of India.
My collection has been deposited in the Central National Herbarium,
Calcutta, under reference number Bennet 1028.

CENTRAL NATIONAL HERBARIUM, © : ny PR ay ae
INDIAN BOTANIC GARDEN, ea S. S. R. BENNET
SIBPUR, CALCUTTA, Bieta ae r
July 5, 1965.

_ REFERENCES

BRESSERS; J. (1951): Tne Botany of PRAIN, Dy (1905) : In Rec. Bot. Surv.
Ranchi District, Bihar, India, p. 106. India 3: 253.

HAInes, H. H. (1922): The Botany of VoIGT, JG? (1845) : Hortus Subur-
Bihar and Orissa, p. 634. banus Calcuttensis, p. 504

35. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON CISTANCHE TUBULOSA
WIGHT

The present account deals with observations made by the author on
Cistanche tubulosa Wight, a root parasite, in Churu and Sriganganagar
districts, Rajasthan, during locust surveys from 1957 to 1962.

The parasite was seen growing on sandy or sandy loam soil in
association with: Calligonum polygonoides L., Prosopis spicigera L.,
Calotropis procera R. Br., C. gigantea Br., Salvadora persica L., Crota-

~ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 601

laria burhia Hamilt., Zizyphus rotundifolia Lamk., Clerodendrum
phlomoides Linn., Tephrosia purpurea Pers., Aerua tomentosa Forsk.,
and Leptadenia spartium Wight.

Its height above the ground did not exceed 60 cm, and adventitious
shoots ranged from 15 to 60 cm.in length with a diameter of up to 10 cm.

Flowering shoots are seen from end January to March when they
wither.

The structure of the parasite and its relation with the hosts were
studied by making trenches around the-parasite at Churu and washing
out the soil with a power sprayer, to expose the complete parasite and
its attachment to the host root. By this method the parasite was found
attached to the following plants: Calligonum polygonoides L., 200
instances; Leptadenia spartium Wight, 1 instance; Calotropis procera
R. Br., 30 instances ; Calotropis gigantea Br., 60 instances.

The parasite was attached to the root of the host in each case by a
primary sucker, of diameter 1:5 to 2:5 cm.; the diameter of the root
measured 0°75 to 2 cm. No secondary sucker was found. From the
terminal end of the underground stem arose’a thin whitish thread-like
structure at the end of which a sucker developed when it came in contact
with host tissue. Only young roots were parasitized. In some cases
minute rhizoids (adventitjous roots) were observed coming out from the
underground stem.

The parasite lost its connection with the host after flowering as the
connecting link withered up. The parasite, however, continued to
flourish. It is evident, therefore, that the parasitism is seasonal.

At one place the author observed the parasite growing between
Leptadenia spartium and Zizyphus rotundifolia, but on unearthing it was
found attached to an ak (Calotropis gigantea) root at about 105 cm.
depth though the host was about 7:5 metres away from the parasite. _

According to Duthie (1911) and Hooker (1885) no branching takes
place in the parasite, but the writer observed it on one occasion.

Five immature plants each having a large underground stem and a
single adventitious shoot were detached on 25 February 1959 from their
hosts and replanted in sandy soil where enough water was provided. It
was observed that the immature plants showed growth ranging from 7.5 _
to 15 cm. and remained normal for about four weeks during which they
flowered and produced seed.

The effect of the parasite on the hosts was also studied. Calotropis
gigantea and C. procera remain green throughout the year. In spite of a
number of parasites on both the species no adverse effect on the hosts
was noted. No ill effect on Leptadenia spartium was observed.
Parasitized Calligonum polygonoides remained generally defoliated during

602 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

winter, and in spring did not produce flowers normally as compared
with plants without the parasite.

DIRECTORATE OF PLANT PROTECTION,

QUARANTINE & STORAGE,
CENTRAL PLANT PROTECTION STATION, CHARAN SINGH
KAzI BAZAR,
a, GUITACKS
May 24, 1965.

REFERENCES

DutptE, J. F. (1911) : Flora of Upper Hooker, J. D. (1885) : The Flora of
Gangetic plains, pp. 162-163. British India, Vol. IV, pp. 780.

36. AERUA PERSIA MERRILL : A HOST OF CISTANCHE
TUBULOSA (SCHENK.) WIGHT

Little information is available on the occurrence of Cistanche tubulosa
(Schenk.) Wight (local name: bea phor; lunki-ka-moola), and_ its
different hosts. Tackholm (1956) has opined that ‘its distribution and
host plants need further investigation’. Blatter & Hallberg (1918-21),
Blatter, McCann, & Sabnis (1929), Satyanarayan & Shankaranarayan (in
press), and Seshagiri Rao & Kanodia (1963) have reported its occurrence:
in Rajasthan only onthe roots of Salvadora species. Blatter & Hallberg
(1918-21) in one of the photographs taken by them have recorded the
occurrence of Cistanche on Capparis decidua and have also suggested
Aerua, Mimosa hamata, and Lycium barbarum as its possible hosts.
Hooker (1885) and Bamber (1916) have described it from the Upper
Gangetic Plain and the Punjab, but do not indicate its- host plant:
Kochar (1958) has given Calotropis in the plains and Salsola, a maritime
plant near Karachi, as its hosts. Post (1933) and Tackholm (1956) have
mentioned its occurrence on Tamarix, Retama, Lycium, and Haloxylon
from Syria, Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt respectively. During studies of
transverse stabilized dune at Bhikamkaur, 73 km. from Jodhpur, the
authors found on 1 January 1964 that the crest and dune siopes were
dominated by Cistanche. It was found by digging and tracing that the
parasite occurred on the roots of Aerua persica Merrill, which was the
only other species found on the dune crests and flanks.

The local people make a paste of Cistanche scapes in mustard oil for
application on wounds caused by guinea-worm, which is prevalent in
step-down wells of the tract.

CENTRAL ARID ZONE RESEARCH INSTITUTE, Y. SATYANARA YAN
JODHPUR, RAJASTHAN, S. K. SAXENA
September 29, 1964. ~ Y. D. GAUR

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Laurembergia agastyamalayana Henry, sp. nov.

5. Female flower ;

bs)

Figures 1 and 2. Portions of plant; 3. Male flower; 4. Stamen;

6. L.S. of female flower; 7. Nut

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

603

REFERENCES

BAMBER, C. J. (1916): Plants of the
Punjab. Lahore.

BLATTER, E., & HALLBERG, F. (1918-
21): The flora of the Indian Desert.

Post, G. E. (1933): Flora of Syria,
Palestine and Sinai. Beirut.

SATYANARAYAN, Y., & SHANKARANARA-
YAN, K. A. (in press): Flora of Central

Luni Basin J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
SESHAGIRI RAO, R., & KANODIA, K. C.
(1963) : Studies on the Flora of Jodhpur
Division, Rajasthan State. Ann. Arid
Zone 2: 39.
TACKHOLM, V. (1956) : Students’ Flora
of Egypt. Cairo.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26: 514;
21 2 310.
, McCann, C., & SABNIS,
‘ESS. (1929). : Flora of the Indus delta.
Madras.
Hooker, J. D. (1885): Flora of
British India 4 : 323-4. London.
Kocnar, P. L. (1958) : A text-book of
plant physiology. Delhi.

[Prof. P. V. Bole 1964, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61(2): 472-3, reports
this parasite on Salvadora persica Linn., and cites J. Indraji Thakar
(PLANTS OF CUTCH, 1926—in Gujarati) as reporting Cistanche tubulosa
parasitizing Salvadora persica, Calotropis gigantea, and the spineless
cactus (Nopalia ?). Several host-plants are mentioned by Charan Singh
at pp. 600-602 above.—Eds. ]

37. A NEW SPECIES OF LAUREMBERGIA BERG:
(HALORAGACEAE) FROM MADRAS STATE

(With a plate)

Laurembergia agastyamalayana Henry, sp. nov.

Affinis L. zeylanicae (Arn. ex Clarke) Schindl., a qua tamen differt
foliis maioribus lineari-oblanceolatis, 3-5-lobatis ad apicem ; lobis tribus
terminalibus digitatis, lateralibus vero, si adsunt, minoribus, anguste
triangularibus ; floribus femineis maioribus pedicellatis, calycis tubo late
cylindrico ; fructibus maioribus late cylindricis vix ad apicem angustatis.

Herba decumbens monoica; caules ad 60 cm. longi, minutim
canaliculati, cicatricibus ornati, glabri, rarius radicantes ad no dos.
Folia inferiora decidua ; superiora vero 0°8-3 cm. longa exclusis lobis,
ad 3 mm. lata, sessilia rugulosa in utraque pagina, spiraliter vel subver-
ticillatim disposita, lineari-oblanceolata, fastigata ad basin, 3-5-lobata
ad apicem ; lobi 3 terminales digitati, laterales vero, si adsunt, minores,
anguste triangulares, omnes mucronulati ad apicem. Flores rosacei,
bini-quaterni, rarius solitarii, in foliorum axilla superiores quidem ut
plurimum musculi, inferiores vero feminei. Flores masculini 3-4 mm.
dia. ; pedicelli ad 2 cm. longi, tenues, glabri; calycis lobi 4, ovato-
acuminati, glabri; petala 4 valvata, late linearia, glabra, acuta et
cucullata ad apicem ; stamina 8 filamentis liberis; antheris basifixis

lineari-oblongis bilocularibus longitudinaliter dehiscentibus ; qeilodin
15

604 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

4 subcylindrica. Flores feminei 1.5x1 mm., breviter pedicellati:
calycis tubo late cylindrico, adnato ovario, granulari, octonervio ;
calycis lobis 4 late ovatis ad apicem obtusis; petala nulla; stamina
nulla ; ovarium uniloculare ; ovulis 4 pendulis ; stylis 4 brevibus ; stig-
matibus capitatis dense filiformi-papillosis. Fructus 1:7<1 mm. late
cylindrici vix ad apicem angustati, octocostati, puncticulati inter costas.

Holotypus Henry 17328 A et isotypi Henry 17328 B-F lecti in collibus
Agastyamalai dictis in Tirunelveli, in ditione Madras ad altitudinum c.
1400 m. supra mare, die 26 augusti 1963; holotypus positus in CAL,
isotypi in MH.

Laurembergia agastyamalayana Henry, sp. nov.

Allied to L. zeylanica (Arn. ex Clarke) Schindler, but differs in having
leaves larger, linear-oblanceolate, 3-5-lobed towards apex ; terminal three
lobes digitate, lateral two when present smaller, narrowly triangular ;
female flowers larger, pedicellate, calyx-tube broadly cylindrical ; and
fruits larger, broadly cylindrical, scarcely narrowed towards apex.

Monoecious, decumbent herbs; stems upto 60 cm. long, minutely
canaliculate, scarred, glabrous, rarely rooting at leaf-axils. Lower leaves
deciduous ; upper leaves 0°8-3 cm. long, excluding the lobes upto 3 mm.
broad, sessile, spirally arranged or subverticillate, linear-oblanceolate,
rugulose on both sides, tapering towards base, 3-5-lobed towards apex ;
terminal 3 lobes digitate, lateral 2 when present smaller, narrowly
triangular, all lobes mucronulate at apex. Flowers pinkish, 2-4 together
(rarely solitary) in leaf-axils, upper axils mostly male, lower female.
Male flowers 3-4 mm. across; pedicels up to 2 cm. long, slender,
glabrous ; calyx-lobes 4, ovate-acuminate, glabrous ; petals 4, valvate,
broadly linear, glabrous, acute and cucullate at apex; stamens 8,
filaments free; anthers basifixed, linear-oblong, 2-celled, dehiscing
longitudinally ; pistillodes 4, subcylindrical. Female flowers + 1:5 mm.
long, -—+ 1 mm. broad, shortly pedicellate ; calyx-tube broadly
cylindrical, adnate to the ovary, granular, 8-nerved ; calyx-lobes 4,
broadly ovate, obtuse at apex ; petals 0; stamens 0; ovary unilocular ;
ovules 4, pendulous; styles 4, short; stigmas capitate, densely filiform-
papillose. Nuts + 1:7 mm. long, + 1 mm. across, broadly cylindrical,
scarcely narrowed towards apex, 8-ribbed, puncticulate between the ribs,
(Plate, Pigs v7).

The holotype of this species (Henry 17328 A) and isotypes (Henry
17328 B-F) were collected from Agastyamalai hills in Tirunelveli district,
Madras State at an altitude of about 1400 m. on 26th August 1963 ; the
holotype has been deposited in the Central National Herbarium, Howrah,
(CAL) and isotypes in the Southern Circle Herbarium, Botanical Survey
of India, Coimbatore, (MH).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 605
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Grateful thanks are due to the Director, Royal Botanic Gardens,
Kew, and Mr. A. R. Smith, also of Kew, for their valuable opinion on the
specimen, to Rev. Dr. H. Santapau, s.J., F.N.I., for the Latin description,
to Dr. K. Subramanyam for going through the manuscript, and to
Dr. K. M. Sebastine for providing facilities for the collection of this
species.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
76, ACHARYYA JAGADISH BOSE ROAD, A. N. HENRY
CALCUTTA 14,

March 24, 1965,

Gleanings

The Society and Wild Life Conservation
In April 1888 the Secretary of the Society conveyed to the Ahmedabad
Municipality the opinion of his Executive Committee regarding a
proposal for protecting game in the area round Ahmedabad. The
“Committee was of the opinion that, in order to be effective, the proposed
legislation should be ‘as simple as possible’. They considered that it
would be sufficient, subject to an exception in favour of cultivators in
regard to game destructive to crops, to make it illegal for any person,
between 15th June and 15th October, to be in possession of game, dead
or alive, unless he could prove that it came into his possession before
15th June. The game recommended for protection was: grouse,
bustard, florican, grey and painted partridge, quail, peafowl, ducks,
jungle and spur fowl, hares, antelopes, and deer. The letter concluded :
* ...as naturalists, the Committee would be glad to see all birds pro-
tected during the rains (i.e., 15th June to 15th October) ’.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 3 : 138

Use of Highly Saline Water for Irrigation (see also NoTES AND NEws, pp.
610-611 below) :

In March 1964 at a joint meeting of The New York Academy of
Sciences and the World Academy of Art and Science, Drs. Hugo and
Elizabeth Boyko gave an account of observations made and work done
by them in the cultivation of non-halophytic plants irrigated by water
with a high saline content and explained the principles involved.
Provided that percolation is sufficient to enable the dangerous but fortu-
nately very soluble salts Sodium Chloride (NaCl) and Magnesium
Chloride (MgCl,) to drain away with the water, the root-hairs draw the
necessary nutrition from the water and also get regular aeration and the
benefit of subterranean dew when the temperature falls, as it does from
time to time. Such percolation is provided by soil consisting of sand or
gravel, in which the clay content is inconsiderable.

In the Negev, beginning in 1949, under desert conditions and using
underground water with a T.S.C. (Total Salt Content) of 2000 to 6000
mg./litre, the speakers successfully grew Agave sisalana (Sisal Hemp),
Dalbergia sissoo (Shisham), Grevillea robusta (Silver Oak), Morus alba
(Mulberry), Nerium oleander (Oleander), Punica granatum (Pomegranate),
and other non-halophytic plants. Given suitable conditions, even sea™
water with a T.S.C. of as much as 30,000 mg./litre may be used. Such
cultivation increases the capacity of the plants to resist drought. In

GLEANINGS 607

the case of Agropyrum junceum, when irrigation stopped in 1962 plants
grown with sea-water survived over a 9-month dry period and, after a
very low rainfall in winter, were still alive at the end of a further 8-month
period of drought. :

New experiments with sea-water are in progress in a chain of places
extending from Orinon in Spain to Bhavnagar in India, where the
Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute, using sea-water of
various concentrations, has successfully grown wheat, tobacco, Alfalfa,
and Agropyrum elongatum (a fodder grass).

Hugo Boyko in Trans. New York Acad. Sc. Ser. II, Vol. 26, Suppl.

to No. 8, pp. 1087-1102

Interrelationships of two zebra species in an overlap zone

A study of interrelations between the zebra species Equus grevyi and
E. burchelli in a region of overlapping distribution in the Northern
Frontier District of Kenya revealed that about two-thirds of the total
zebra population was in mixed herds, the composition of which remained
relatively constant during the period of the study. Inside the herd there
was a tendency for the numerically outnumbered species to group
together, more so during movement than when feeding or resting. In
flight, however, instead of a separation into two herds the smaller group
kept near the centre of the fleeing mass. No interspecific conflict within
the herd was noticed. Attempted copulation and low intensity sexual

behaviour observed was all intraspecific.
Allen Keast in 1965, Journal of Mammalogy 46 (1) : 53-66

Spiders and Music

Paderewski in his MEMOIRS tells the tale of a spider that used to res-
pond to his playing of a study in thirds, letting itself down from the
ceiling right on to the piano desk. ‘...for many weeks he came—he
was a faithful companion. . . . He would sit immovable, or hang im-
movable I should say, during that Chopin Etude, perfectly content and
perfectly quiet. But the moment I stopped that particular study, back
he went quickly to the ceiling and disappeared. Sometimes, I used to
think quite angrily.’ John Crompton in LIFE OF THE SPIDER recalls the
story of Beethoven as a boy smashing his violin in a rage because his
mother killed a spider that used to let itself down from the ceiling and sit
on his violin while he played on it. Does this show a love for music ?
A more prosaic explanation is given by W. S. Bristowe in THE WORLD OF
SPIDERS : ‘A tuning fork touching a spider’s threads can cause excite-
ment similar to that of the vibrations set up by a bluebottle in the web
of an Araneus or a Ciniflo ; and a violinist can bring about the same

response,”

608 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) .

Whaling in the Antarctic and Conservation Measures

In Oryx, August 1965, J. A. Gulland one of a Committee of four
scientists appointed by the International Whaling Commission to in-
vestigate the state of the Antarctic stock of whales and the need for con=
servation measures, discusses generally the plight of whales. In spite of
the International Whaling Convention and all that the I.W.C. can do the
numbers of the whales have fallen alarmingly, and the urgently required
reduction of quotas cannot be imposed as the short-term interests. of the
whaling companies prevent the obtaining of the required three-fourths
majority support. He suggests as the only remedy that, in future, the
whales should be owned and hunted by the United Nations, who should
buy out the whaling companies, a suggestion that at first sight sounds -
fantastic but might usefully be given serious consideration.

Pre-determination of sex in cichlid fish of the genus Pelmatochromis

In a paper on colour polymorphism in the males of an African fish,
Walter Heiligenberg records incidentally an interesting observation, that
in the genus Pelmatochromis the sex of the progeny is affected by the
degree of acidity of the water, the proportion of males reaching as much
as, or more than, 90% when the fish are bred in slightly acid water (pH
4-5) whereas in neutral water more than 90% are females.

Journal of Zoology, September 1965, 146 : 95-97

Ventilation of the burrow of the European Mole

Observations in the vicinity of Cracow, Poland, on the ventilation of
the burrow of the European Mole, Talpa europaea, showed a correlation
between the movement of the air above the surface of the ground and the
flow of air inside the burrow. Access of air may be by openings in the
tunnels or through freshly made molehills. A perceptible flow was found
in the tunnel even when there was practically no flow at ground level out-
side. This was found to be so, also, in a tunnel situated thirty metres
inside a forest, although in the forest itself the movement of air was too ~
feeble to be recorded, and outside the forest there was only a slight breeze
reaching at most a speed of one-and-a-half metres a second. Inside
the burrows, there was no noticeable movement of air in the nest chamber
though in the tunnels opening into it there were recordable air currents.
J. L. Olszwski and §S. Skoczen in Acta Theriologica Vol. 10 : 181-193,
30 September 1965, : |

Notes and News

Bhutan Bird Survey

At the invitation of His Majesty the Druk Gyalpo of Bhutan
Dr. Salim Ali is undertaking a survey of the bird life of this Himalayan
kingdom. In the first instance Dr. Salim Ali will be in the field during
the months of February and March 1966 and hopes to follow this up
by another field session at a different season of the year in order to round
off the survey. He will be accompanied by a number of field assistants
and technicians from the Bombay Natural History Society. Dr. Ali
plans to study the ecology of east-Himalayan birds of the subtropical
evergreen and temperate deciduous zones at medium elevations and to
collect specimens for the Society’s collection. He also hopes to procure
data on bird migration in this little known area and to explore the possi-
bilities of extending to Bhutan the BNHS/'WHO project for the study
of migratory birds as possible disseminators of arthropod-borne Viruses.

Nicobar Bird Survey

The Society through the enthusiasm of its active members continues
one of its major activities, regional faunal surveys. Mr. Humayun
Abdulali who recently surveyed the avifauna of the Andaman Islands
(see Journal 61 : 483-571) proposes to visit the Nicobar group in early
1965 for a similar survey. While emphasis will be on the avifauna,
other material will also be collected.

Wild Buffalo Survey

At the invitation of the Government of Madhya Pradesh, the Curator
and two Research Assistants assisted by Dr. G. B. Schaller surveyed the
habitats of the Wild Buffalo in Bastar. A report on the survey will be
published in the April 1966 issue of the Journal.

Fauna Volume in the GAZETTEER OF MAHARASHTRA Series

The Society has been entrusted with the preparation of a volume on
the fauna of Maharashtra. It is hoped to have the manuscript ready
in 1966.

Col. R. W. Burton Trust

The Society has been bequeathed a sum of Rs. 3000/- by the late
Col. R. W. Burton, an active ex-member of the Society who during the
last years of his stay in the country, by his writings and representations,

610 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)
eq
made the Government and the people conscious of their responsibilities
towards the conservation of the country’s wild life. The Society
proposes to invest this fund and from the proceeds further Col. Burton’s
interest in Nature Conservation, e.g., by grants for studies on Wild Life
or in recognition of services to the cause of Nature Conservation in

India.

2 to
| &.

Wild Life Preservation Seminar

The Government of India in the Ministry of Agriculture called a
special meeting of the Indian Board for Wild Life to meet the members
of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources en route to a Conference in Bangkok. The meeting was
held at Vigyan Bhavan, New Delhi, on the 24th of November 1965 and
was presided over by Shri Shah Nawaz Khan, the Deputy Minister for
Agriculture.

A full report will appear in an early issue of our Journal. The
meeting provided an opportunity for conservationists in India to
exchange ideas with leading naturalists of the world. The Government
of India has to be congratulated for convening this Seminar on Wild
Life Preservation at a time when it was so harassed by the emergency
created by the Indo-Pak war. It is hoped that the many suggestions
made at the meeting relating to the preservation of our Wild Life and
Natural Habitats will be seriously implemented. j

International Symposium on Highly Saline and Sea-water Irrigation,
Rome, 5th-9th September 1965 (See also GLEANINGS, pp. 606-7 above)

An international symposium on highly saline and sea- water irrigation,
organized by the World Academy of Art and Science was held in Rome
last September. 104 participants from 23 countries attended. A number
of lectures, illustrated by lantern slides, dealt with experiments carried
out through several years in different countries. Many new principles
were put forward and discussed, e.g., biological desalination of soil
by salt-accumulating plants (Speaker : Dr. H. Boyko). Speakers from India
were Professor P. C. Raheja on ‘ Saline Soil Problems with particular
reference to Salinity in India’ and Drs. R. R. Iyengar, T. Kurian, and
A. Tewari on ‘ Utilization of Sea-water on Coastal Sandy Belts for
Growing Crops in India’. Full details of the principles, experiments,
and lectures will be published in two books, complementing each other :

SALINITY AND ARIDITY—NEW APPROACHES TO OLD PROBLEMS (ed.
H. Boyko) To be published by Dr. W. Junk, Publishers, The
Hague, Netherlands.

IRRIGATION WITH HIGHLY SALINE WATER AND SEAWATER WITH OR
WITHOUT DESALINATION. Proceedings of the International
Salinity Symposium in Rome, 5-9 Sept. 1965. In preparation as

NOTES AND NEWS , 611

Volume IV of the Publications of the World Academy of Art
and Science.

Chemical Pesticides and Wild Life

At the instance of the IUCN Commission on Ecology’s Committee
on the Ecological Effect of Chemical Controls and with the assistance of
NATO, seventy-one scientists from eleven NATO and non-NATO coun-
tries held an Advanced Study Institute at the Nature Conservancy’s
Monks Wood Experimental Station, Huntingdonshire, England, from
1 to 14 July 1965. The main purpose was to enable those working on the
effects of pesticides on wildlife to exchange ideas and discuss future
research. Among other things instances were cited of the finding of
chemical pesticides in biological samples collected from environments
which had never been sprayed, e.g. animals, birds, and fish from the
Antarctic and Lake Michigan, U.S.A., and eggs from sea-bird colonies
_in England, Scotland, Ireland, and the Netherlands. The Advanced
Study Institute was most useful in determining areas of ignorance,
initiating technical co-operation, and defining the main research needs
at the present time. The thirty-four papers read will be published in
a Symposium volume. (From IUCN Bulletin New Series No. 16. July/
September 1965).

Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan

Volume 1 of HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN by
Salim Ali and S. Dillon Ripley is now with the Publishers (Oxford
University Press) and expected to be out some time in late 1966. It will
cover the first 224 species and subspecies of Ripley’s SyNopsIs, from the
Order Gaviiformes to Falconiformes (inclusive). Practically every
species will be illustrated in colour and there will be, in addition, text
figures for most, and distribution maps—particularly of the migrant
species. The MS. of Volume 2, ending with synopsis No. 448 (Skuas),
is nearing completion. The remaining eight volumes are expected to
come out at the rate of about one per year. This important work is
sponsored by the Society with financial aid from the Government of
India and the Smithsonian Institution, Washington.

Catalogue of the Society’s Bird Collection

Mr. Humayun Abdulali is presently engaged in a detailed examination
of the Society’s bird collection, comprising more than 22,000 specimens,
and the preparation of a Cataloguethereof. When completed, the Cata-
logue will give an up-to-date list of the specimens the Society can offer
for examination by persons interested. Points arising in the course of
the work and calling for early publication will appear in the pages of the
Journal from time to time ; the others will be noticed or dealt with in the

612 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3)

Catalogue. The Catalogue will be published in instalments in the
Journal, the first of which we hope to include in an early number.

Research workers may like to possess the Catalogue in handy form :
if there appears to be a sufficient demand, the Society will keep a limited
stock of separates for sale at a reasonable charge. Individuals .and
institutions interested are requested to intimate their requirements to the
Honorary Secretary, who will be glad to supply any further information
that may be required. :

A large amount of capital is locked up in the stock BF the Society’ S
publications waiting for sale, and the Society is hampered in its efforts
to undertake other needed publications. From the ignorance that some
of our readers have recently shown of the publication last April of the
second edition of THE BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS it seems. that the list of
publications on cover-page 3 of every issue of the Journal is such
a familiar feature that it tends to be ignored. We therefore draw our
readers’ attention to this list. Please study it for your own needs and,
further, help the Society by bringing its publications to the notice of your
friends and of educational institutions in your neighbourhood. We
would draw particular attention to the cheap booklets of the ‘ Glimpses
of Nature’ series, each with 8 plates in colour, specially devised to be
suitable for young people.

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS
10 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, _MADRAS—26- 4. 1966. C4209 }
EDITORS: H. SANTAPAU, D. E. REUBEN, ZAFAR FUTEHALLY, & J. C. DANIEL ‘

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS

Mammals

The Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater. 2nd (revised) edition. 28 platesin
— colour by Paul Barruel and many other illustrations. Rs. 30
(Price to members Rs. 25)

Birds

The Book of Indian Birds, by Salim Ali. 7th (revised) edition. 64 coloured and
many monochrome plates. Rs. 25
(Price to members Rs. 20)

A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan, by S. Dillon Ripley II. An up-to-date
checklist of all the birds resident and migrant, including those of Nepal, Sikkim,
Rs. 25

Bhutan, and Ceylon. |
(Price to members Rs. 20)
: Snakes
Identification of Poisonous Snakes. Wall chart in English, Gujarati, and Marathi.
Rs. 10

(Price to members Rs. 8)

Miscellaneous |
Some Beautiful Indian Trees, by Blatter and: Millard. With many coloured and
monochrome plates. 2nd edition. Revised by W. T. Stearn Rs. 20

(Price to members’ Rs. 16)
Butterflies of the Indian Region, by M. A. Wynter-Blyth. With 27 coloured ae 45

monochrome plates.
(Price to members Rs. 22.50)
Indian Molluscs, by James Hornell. With 2 coloured and many monochrome plates,

and text-figures. ,
(Price to members’ Rs. 4.50)
Glimpses of Nature Series Booklets :
1. Our Birps I (with 8 coloured plates) in Gujarati, Hindi, and Marathi.

Rs. 0.80
Kannada Rs. 0.62
2. Our Birps II (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi. Rs. 0.62
3. Our BEAUTIFUL TREES (with 8 coloured plates) in Gujarati, Hindi, and
_Marathi. Rs. 0.62
4. Our MONSOON PLANTS (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati, Hindi,
and Marathi. Rs. 0.80
5. Our ANIMALS (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati, Hindi, eer
Back numbers of the Society’s Journal. Lo: on application. pe
Correspond with :
The Honorary Secretary,

Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House, opp. Lion Gate, Apollo Street, Fort, Bombay 1-BR.

Agents in England:
Messrs. Wheldon & Wesley Ltd.,
Lytton Lodge, Codicote, Near Hitchin,
Herts., England.

The Society will gratefully accept back numbers of the Journal, pealitplatly
numbers prior to Vol. 45, from members who may not wish to preserve ‘them.

TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP

Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 and a life membership fee of Rs. 500.
Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 and an annual subscription of Rs. 30.
The subscription of members elected in October, November, and December covers
the period from the date of their election to the end of the following year.

MEMBERS RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA

The terms are the same for members living outside India. Such members should
pay their subscriptions by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the amount of the
subscription, plus postal registration (Rs. 2.50) if required—in all Rs. 32.50—to
the Society in Bombay on the Ist January in each year. If this cannot be done,
then the sum of £2-10-0 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers—
The National & Grindlays Bank Ltd., 26 Bishopsgate Street, London, E.C. 2.

Apply to:
THB BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Hornbill House, opp. Lion Gate, Apollo Street,
Fort, Bombay 1-«BR.

CONTENTS

REPORT ON THE STATUS OF THE KASHMIR STAG: Ocrossr 1965. By E. P. Gee..

FLORAL STRUCTURE AND STAMENS IN Ceiba pentandra (LINN.) GazRTN.
By T. A. Davis and Abaatika Kundu Ae

CRITICAL NoTES ON THREE SPECIES OF Capparis LINN. FRrRoM PENINSULAR
Inpia. By R. Sundara Raghavan and KoLta Seshagiri Rao

THE NIDIFICATION OF SomMB COMMON INDIAN Birps—Part 2. By B. S.
Lamba nA Bs ba j .

ON Caulerpa fastigiata MONT. VAR. fastigiata IN INDIA. By Francesca
Thivy and V. Visalakshmi ie a

FrsH FAUNA OF MUZAFFARNAGAR DistRICT, UTTAR PRapDeEsH. By C. L.
Mahajan

SOME PLANT RECORDS FROM THE’ ERSTWHILE CENTRAL PROVINCES AND
BERAR. By K. M. Balapure

REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR ON THE INDIAN SPIKE-TAILED Parapisg FIsn,

Macropodus cupanus (Cuv. & VAL.). By Bikas C. Pal and cp

H. Southwick Si

THE SNAKES OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA AND SOcoTRA.. oe N: L: Corkill
and J. A. Cochrane ey a oe ih Ree eee

METRICAL AND NON-METRICAL VARIATION IN THE SKULLS OF GIR LIONS.
By Neil B. Todd Ee ai ie

NOTEs ON INDIAN BIRDS 5—THE RACES OF Apus affinis (J. E. Gray) IN THE
INDIAN REGION. By Humayun Abdulali

IN MEMORIAM

REVIEWS es ari a ed i ae
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Ss oe au pds ae
GLEANINGS ee ee ee

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